Music Educators
Journal
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Six Functions of Conducting: A New Foundation for Music Educators
Alan J. Gumm
Music Educators Journal 2012 99: 43
DOI: 10.1177/0027432112458705
The online version of this article can be found at:
http://mej.sagepub.com/content/99/2/43
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by Alan J. Gumm
Six Functions of
Conducting
A New Foundation
for Music Educators
Abstract: This article poses six functions of conducting as a new foundation for music educators. Two traditional functions focus on music: the mechanical precision function indicates
beat, tempo, meter, rhythm, cues, entrances and cutoff releases, and the expressive function
indicates dynamics and other expressive characteristics interpreted in a score. Used to a lesser
degree, yet representing distinct camps or schools of thought in the field, are functions that
focus on musicians. Gestures that draw musicians into an intense mental and visual connection with the conductor serve a motivational function. Gestures that mimic and guide performance on specific instruments serve a physical technique function. Smaller, circular, or rising
motions serve an unrestrained tone function that unites an ensemble in a self-reliant tempo
and tone. Sharing the intention of planned gestures, teaching musicians to conduct, and drawing gestures from musicians’ familiar experiences serve a psychosocial function. This multifunctional view of conducting draws attention beyond the act of delivering gestures to how
an ensemble receives and responds to gestures. It is educationally better rounded, providing a
more complete foundation for music educators.
Keywords: band, chorus, conducting, general music, gesture, motivation, orchestra, technique
A
s music educators, when we step in
front of a group of musicians to conduct, we draw on a common tradition of
mechanical beat patterns and expressive gestures centuries old in its development.1 In this
tradition, both functions—mechanical and
expressive—are passed down so each new
generation of conductors can learn to communicate a full variety of musical features to our
musicians.
The art of conducting, however, has progressed beyond this traditional foundation
of mechanical and expressive functions. The
progress is in how we have learned to connect with musicians who make the music
more than merely portraying the music to
musicians. This intent has certainly been
expressed before, but it has remained difficult to articulate within the limited terms of
our two traditional functions.2 However, a
Alan Gumm is professor of music education at Central Michigan University, where he directs the Women’s Chorus and Vocal
Jazz Ensemble and teaches choral and general music methods, choral literature, and graduate research. He can be contacted at
[email protected].
www.nafme.org
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Conductors are
the conduit from
music to musicians
to audience; here
are some ideas
on improving
communication
toward musical and
expressive results.
Copyright © 2012 National Association
for Music Education
DOI: 10.1177/0027432112458705
http://mej.sagepub.com
43
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breakthrough beyond traditional functions has been made in a recent poll of
conducting professors, undergraduate
and graduate conducting students, and
band, choir, and general music educators.3 Not only did this wide range of
conductors distinguish the mechanically
precise and expressive musical intent of
traditional conducting, but they also recognized four separate functions intent
on the motivational, physical technique,
unrestrained tone, and psychosocial
needs of musicians. These distinctions
confirm the extensive progress that
has occurred in the conducting field in
connecting with musicians, but more
importantly, they bring this progress into
clearer focus than ever before.
The purpose of this article is to pose
this set of six functions of conducting as
a new foundation for music educators.
Because the added functions address
44
such specific and varied needs of
musicians, this new foundation is crucial for music educators in our work with
student musicians. Furthermore, this
new foundation is advantageous to all
conductors in bringing any ensemble to
greater heights than attained with traditional mechanics and expression alone.
In laying out this foundation, I discuss
these six functions in turn.
Mechanical Precision Function
The primary skill we learn in conducting is mechanical precision. This term is
used for several reasons:
•• it requires mastery of the mechanics
or techniques of precise movement
patterns;
•• it needs to become mechanically
automatic and second nature so other
Dr. James Kjelland,
String Mythbusters,
July 15-19, 2013.
functions can be coordinated along
with it; and
•• it involves mechanical, metronomic,
or time-keeping concepts of music,
such as beat, tempo, and meter.
For those new to conducting, these
mechanics are the patterns assigned to
the right hand as found in any conducting textbook. They include a backward-J
pattern for two-beat meters, such as 2/4
and divided 6/8; a triangular down-outup pattern for three-beat meters, such as
3/4 and divided 9/8; a down-in-out-up
pattern for four-beat meters, such as 4/4
and divided 12/8; and various options
for other meters. Distinctive downbeats
and beat points help make these patterns
clear and precise. Well-timed entrance
cues and cutoff releases clarify when to
start and stop the music as well as individual lines within the music. Altogether,
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these gestures require a lot of practice,
coordination, and confidence to execute
precisely and decisively, which partly
explains why mechanical precision has
remained the primary focus in the conducting classroom as well as the professional field.
The mechanical precision function is
what allows a conductor to step up to the
podium and expect most any ensemble
to follow. But this expectation is also a
weakness, particularly with musicians
who do not know what these gestures
are meant to convey, when difficulties
and distractions steal musicians’ attention away from the conductor, or when
patterns become so commonplace that
musicians ignore or stray off from the
conductor. Such problems point out the
need for additional conducting functions
beyond mechanical precision.
Expressive Function
The second primary function we traditionally learn is expressivity, though a
growing call in the profession is to bring
this function to a higher priority than
mechanics.4 Expressive gestures function to shape the general character and
emotional intent of the music as well as
specific momentary musical events that
are implied or marked in a score, such
as the shape or peak of a phrase, or an
emotive shift in tempo, dynamics, or
articulation.
Traditionally, expressive gestures
are added in the left hand after mechanics are well in place. An example is a
dynamic rise and fall of the left hand
as the right hand continues a metrical
beat pattern. Using the left hand independently helps an ensemble distinguish expression more clearly apart from
mechanics, though expressive gestures
should remain within a close field of
view with mechanics to avoid different
perceptions and responses in musicians
to the left and right of the conductor.5
Alternatively, expressive gestures can be
adapted into right-hand patterns by varying the size, speed, weight, and strength
of motion at points going into, at, and
between each beat. Expressivity also
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involves the conductor’s face in reflecting the emotion of the music, which in
turn stimulates emotional responses in
musicians and draws out their deeper
expressive performance, consequently
affecting the audience more deeply as
well.
Although keeping an ensemble
together is a function of mechanical
precision, musicians may synchronize
with the conductor more accurately during expressive conducting.6 Compared
to repetitive mechanics that musicians
sometimes come to ignore, expressive
conducting is fresh, challenging, and
engaging, which promotes even more
precise synchronization.
Motivational Function
As just noted, expressive conducting
helps an ensemble stay with a conductor because it is fresh, challenging, and
engaging. But these same advantages are
put into practice in meeting a third function of conducting—a motivational function that helps musicians stay alert and
responsive to the conductor at any point
in the music.
A motivational function comes into
play when conductors vary the size
and intensity of gestures for musicianattention purposes rather than for a musical objective.7 These gestures are not at
the point of a mechanical or an expressive
event, but beforehand, so musicians are
locked in and ready to respond. Motivation is the goal when a conductor signals
a reminder to keep eye contact, points
out when minds wander, gives a wink of
recognition, gives a quick alerting side
glance, randomly scans the ensemble,
or raises the enthusiasm of gestures and
facial expressions for no reason but to
mentally engage musicians. Motivating
gestures can go as far as the conductor
leaving the podium to circulate into the
ensemble, grabbing musicians’ attention
by coming into their space rather than
allowing them to mentally drift at the farther distance from the conductor.
Motivating gestures generally occur
in response to musicians’ immediate level
of alertness, concentration, and focus, and
yet may also be anticipated and marked
in the music where musicians need to
be specially alerted. Drastic, sudden,
unexpected, or especially challenging points in a score—such as a subito
dynamic or a difficult page turn—are typically marked with an eye-catching color
highlight, a star, or a drawing of eyeglasses to prompt the conductor to give
a forewarning gesture or glance for the
ensemble to be alert before the musical
event occurs. Both the marking and the
gesture at these points in the music serve
a motivational function, not a mechanical
or expressive function.
Notice the important role the eyes
serve in motivating an intense visual and
mental connection between conductor
and ensemble. To maintain attention,
a conductor’s gaze needs to shift and
search thoroughly and unpredictably to
leave less room for lax attention. This
gives greater reason to study and learn
the musical score ahead of rehearsal, not
only to determine an expressive interpretation but also so that the conductor’s
eyes are with the musicians and not in
the music.
The visual and mental connection
between conductor and musicians goes
deeper than simple attention and readiness. The deeper goal is to draw musicians into an intense connection that is
spiritual, emotional, or mystical, keeping
musicians “on the same wavelength,” “in
flow,” “in a zone,” or “in concert” with
the conductor.8 In these terms, the motivational function can be seen to play
a vital role in conducting any ensemble and is as essential to an ensemble’s
greater success and unity as are mechanics and expression.
Physical Technique Function
There is yet another way to synchronize
an ensemble than mechanically, expressively, or motivationally: to gesture
technically when and how to move. In
meeting a physical technique function of
conducting, conductors draw from and
aim gestures toward musicians’ execution of music and not directly toward
the music itself.9 Through this unique
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45
directors’ practice of mouthing words,
gesturing vowel shapes and consonant
articulations, or signaling posture or
low breath support to the choir.10 It gives
credence to instrumental directors’ practice of using bowlike motions for string
players, articulation and fingering gestures for winds, or striking gestures for
percussionists, examples of which are
readily obvious in videos of the great
Herbert von Karajan’s orchestral conducting.11 Such gestures not only match
the mechanical timing and expressive
nuances of the music but more particularly convey the direction, range,
strength, energy, weight, and speed of
motion in musicians. This function also
explains why conductors should ideally
work to maintain a balanced conducting
stance—not only for their own health
but also to model healthy performance
techniques expected of musicians.12
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function, we shape the music by helping musicians’ shape their physical
technique.
Physical technique is the focus when
conductors depict energy levels, signal
muscle strength, and mimic or guide the
size and direction of motions required
46
of musicians to produce a particular
musical sound. It is a more sensible and
concrete solution for children or novice
musicians before they come to understand metrical beat patterns and simply need to be guided in how to make
music. It is the rationale behind choral
downbeats, the narrowing constraint of
a dictated tempo, the inward closing off
of a pinched cutoff, and other restrictive
results of traditional gestures. Instead,
tone is released upward and forward on
the wave of a less mechanically driven,
forward-flowing tempo.
An unrestricted tone function can
also be carried out by conducting
smaller, slighter, and with less force—or
Music Educators Journal December 2012
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even by stopping conducting for a short
time. By minimizing or stopping gestures, musicians are released from the
tight control and restraint of the conductor and are freed to develop independent
self-control, draw on their own internal
tempo, shift their attention to blending and balancing with each other, and
thereby unite in an unrestrained tone.
As the ensemble takes self-control, conductor attention is likewise freed to shift
from strict mechanical control over the
ensemble to other functions that can
potentially lead the ensemble to greater
heights.
Psychosocial Function
Another alternative to conductor
dependence developed more recently
in the field is a psychosocial function. Countering the tradition of making lone conducting decisions and then
expecting the ensemble to follow, this
alternative is to foster interdependence
and shared interpretive decisions with
the ensemble.15 The intention is to help
musicians make more sense of a conductor’s chosen gestures or to find gestures
that make more sense to musicians. In
developing this dynamic psychosocial
relationship, the conductor becomes
more vulnerable, open, collaborative,
and responsive in determining how to
conduct. Although the result includes
vastly improved musical precision and
expression, the significant functional
shift is in how the conductor connects
with musicians.
A psychosocial function is met
when conductors take time to share
the intention and interpretation behind
chosen gestures, to teach musicians
about conducting, or to teach them
how to conduct. The process could
start with having musicians mirror conducting gestures with their hands so
they experience them for themselves,
and could extend to having ensemble
members take the place of the conductor at the podium to reveal how deeply
individuals have internalized the music
and the gestures.
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A psychosocial function is further
realized by drawing gestures from musicians’ common background experiences.
This is the point at which conducting becomes metaphorical—more like
mime or theatre acting than traditional
conducting—with objects and actions
familiar to the ensemble imaginarily
shaped and moved.16 For instance, we
can indicate staccato as a pendulum or a
typing gesture, legato as a feather on air
or a taffy-pull motion, marcato as a basketball bounce or ping-pong paddling,
metrical accents as a full-bodied dance
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47
move, or a forte entrance as a crack of
the whip or a Frisbee throw, with each
choice depending on the ensemble’s
familiarity and response. Instead of
seeing such gestures as unseemly or
unprofessional, recognition of this psychosocial function shows the valid role
played by these nontraditional options.
Such gestures represent a unique shared
experience that connects more immediately and with deeper meaning and
artistry than is possible with traditional
gestures alone.
Viewed from a psychosocial perspective, even the most lofty intentions
and outstanding gestures of the conductor represent “limits” within which an
ensemble is to remain. Ideally, then, the
deepest interdependent and creative
psychosocial goal is to allow musicians
to soar beyond the bounds of the conductor. To accomplish this goal, conductors encourage musicians to explore
expressions unique to those determined
by the conductor. Conductors then seek
out and recognize these unique expressions and reflect them in their conducting for the entire ensemble to follow.
In this scenario, everybody is leading
and everybody is following at the same
time, with the conductor serving as a
conduit, inspired to greater heights by
individual musicians and, in exchange,
inspiring the entire ensemble to greater
heights.
Putting It All Together
Out of the many issues and options
presented in this overview, four key
implications emerge. These four implications are intended for all conductors,
whether student or instructor, novice
or experienced, and regardless of
whether in choral, instrumental, or
general music.
First, this multifunctional view
reflects more fully the varied priorities
and practices of present-day conductors
and points out the creative and insightful inroads the profession has made in
the art of conducting. Although guiding
the mechanics of music may be the most
48
prevalent and traditional function of
conductors, it shows how gestures shift
to address expressive, motivational,
technical, tonal, and psychosocial functions as well. It also acknowledges the
existence of different camps or schools
of thought on conducting in the profession. While some conductors give
expressive gestures greater priority
over all else, others embed mechanics and expression into a techniqueoriented approach to conducting. And
while still others use a minimalist
approach to motivate a beautiful tone
and deep intra-ensemble connection,
there are those who use unique metaphorical or mimed gestures that a particular ensemble responds to best, ones
that do not look like traditional conducting at all. Therefore, this set of conducting functions is not a mandate for
a new unanimity of conducting practice
but a recognition of a new standard set
of options to equitably be made available to all conductors.
Second, the four newly distinguished
functions point out how conductors pay
attention beyond the score to address
crucial problems across an ensemble.
Conductors who limit their attention to
traditional patterns and gestures ignore
mental, physical, psychological, and
social problems that get in the way of
an ensemble’s greater achievements.
What is more, attention needs to aim
beyond the conductor’s own hands—
beyond the act of delivering gestures
to an ensemble—to address how the
ensemble receives and responds to gestures. So this expanded set of conducting functions represents more than a set
of new gestures to perfect. It represents
the expanding perceptions and deepening insights of conductors as we gain
in maturity and experience. It also presents a series of targets—a vision for the
future—for beginning and novice conductors, for conducting instructors in
their course work, and for experienced
conductors toward their self-guided
growth.
Third, though this set of functions
may seem to merely add to an already
extensive list of traditional patterns and
gestures we are to learn as conductors,
in effect it provides a streamlined, organized, and adaptable approach to learning and improving conducting. These
six functions can be accomplished either
in a chosen sequence or holistically all
at once. Following common practice,
one sequential option is to start with
traditional mechanics and then move
on to other functions as coordination
and awareness allow. Or the sequence
could start with traditional mechanics
and expression until attention can go to
musicians. An inverse sequential option
is to first explore how musicians respond
to simple gestures, both motivationally and psychosocially, then add musical mechanics and expression within
an observant and responsive approach
to conducting. Holistically, conductors can face the entire set of functions
at once in a natural ensemble environment, shifting from mechanics to expression to other functions back and forth
according to changing circumstances.
Another holistic option is to work
toward a unique conducting style that
is altogether synchronized, emotional,
mentally and physically engaging, free
flowing, spontaneous, and nurturing.
Whichever option is taken, notice that in
each, the focus turns from the tedium of
coordinated patterns to the realization
of a small set of purposeful functions.
Conductors’ sights are set beyond the
gestures themselves to the choice and
adaptation of gestures to serve specific
functional goals.
Finally, every field has its traditions,
but to thrive, every field must continue
to grow and respond to new challenges.
In this groundbreaking multifunctional
view of conducting, both our traditions
and our more recent developments are
on display more clearly and distinctly
than ever before. Consequently, this set
of six functions provides a new, more
complete foundation for all conductors, yet one that is especially crucial
for music educators in our work with
student musicians. Most important, this
new foundation fosters a deeper mastery of conducting than offered by traditional gestures alone, and reveals ever
Music Educators Journal December 2012
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more clearly the standard of excellence
already in practice in the profession.
Notes
1. José Antonio Bowen, “The Rise of
Conducting,” in The Cambridge
Companion to Conducting, ed. José
Antonio Bowen (Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press, 2003),
93–113; and Muriel Gibala-Maharidge,
“The Evolution of the Choral
Conducting Profession in the Twentieth
Century: Conducting Methods as
Written Testimonies” (DMA diss.,
University of California, Santa Barbara,
2005).
2. Colin Durrant, “Toward a Model of
Effective Communication: A Case for
Structured Teaching of Conducting,”
British Journal of Music Education 11
(1994): 57–76; and Colin Durrant,
“Communicating and Accentuating the
Aesthetic and Expressive Dimension
in Choral Conducting,” International
Journal of Music Education 27
(November 2009): 326–40.
3. Alan J. Gumm, Sharyn L. Battersby,
Kathryn L. Simon, and Andrew E.
Shankles, “The Identification of
Conductor-Distinguished Functions of
Conducting,” Research and Issues in
Music Education 9 (September 2011),
http://www.stthomas.edu/rimeonline/
vol9/index.htm (accessed July 27,
2012).
4. Shelly Boardman, “A Survey of
the Undergraduate Instrumental
Conducting Course in Region Seven
of the National Association of Schools
of Music” (DMA diss., University
of Georgia, Athens, 2000); Harold
Farberman, “Beating Time: How Not
to Make Music,” Music Educators
Journal 88 (November 2000): 39–45;
Joel F. Plaag, “An Overview on and
Recommendations on Expressivity
in Conducting Pedagogy” (DMA
diss., University of Houston, Texas,
2006); Gregory Gentry and Matthew
Harden, “Context-Specific Somatic
Vocabulary: Conducting Gestures with
Musical Outcomes,” Choral Journal
48 (April 2008): 21–26; and Andrew
Mathers, “The Use of Gestural Modes
to Enhance Expressive Conducting at
All Levels of Entering Behavior through
www.nafme.org
the Use of Illustrators, Affect Displays
and Regulators,” International Journal
of Music Education 27 (May 2009):
143–53.
5. Clemens Wöllner and Wolfgang
Auhagen, “Perceiving Conductors’
Expressive Gestures from Different
Visual Perspectives: An Exploratory
Continuous Response Study,” Music
Perception 26 (December 2008):
129–43.
6. Geoff Luck, “An Investigation of
Conductors’ Temporal Gestures and
Conductor-Musician Synchronization,
and a First Experiment,” Psychology of
Music 36 (January 2008): 81–98.
7. Alan J. Gumm, “The Development of a
Model and Assessment Instrument of
Choral Music Teaching Styles,” Journal
of Research in Music Education 41
(Fall 1993): 181–99; and Cornelia
Yarbrough, “Effect of Magnitude of
Conductor Behavior on Students in
Selected Mixed Choruses,” Journal
of Research in Music Education 23
(Summer 1975): 134–46.
8. David L. Sharlow, “Building Common
Ground: An Investigation of Choral
Conductors’ Definition of Community
within a Choral Ensemble” (PhD diss.,
University of Missouri–Kansas City,
2006).
9. Richard Chagnon, “A Comparison
of Five Choral Directors’ Use of
Movement to Facilitate Learning in
Rehearsals” (DMA diss., University of
Arizona, Tucson, 2001).
10.Gibala-Maharidge, “The Evolution,”
120; Alan McClung, “Using Video
Self-Assessment to Enhance Nonverbal
Conducting Gesture,” Choral Journal
45 (April 2005): 27–35.
11.“Herbert Von Karajan - Symphony
No. 9 (Beethoven) - Ode an die
Freude” [Video], 2011, http://www
.youtube.com/watch?v=0417pQz7iIk
(accessed July 27, 2012); and
“Herbert von Karajan Dvorak Simphony
n. 9 ‘Aus der Neuen Welt’ Allegro con
fuoco” [Video], 2008, http://www
.youtube.com/watch?v=CQmsesSde-o
(accessed July 27, 2012).
12.McClung, “Using Video
Self-Assessment.”
13.Chagnon, “A Comparison,” 97; Rhonda
J. Vieth Fuelberth, “The Effect of
Various Left Hand Conducting Gestures
on Perceptions of Anticipated Vocal
Tension in Singers,” International
Journal of Research in Choral Singing
2 (2004): 27–38; and Jeremy N.
Manternach, “The Effect of Conductor
Head and Shoulder Movement and
Preparatory Gesture Direction on Upper
Body Movement of Individual Singers”
(master’s thesis, University of Kansas,
Lawrence, 2009).
14.“Johann Strauss II, CarnevalsBotschafter Walzer, Seiji Ozawa”
[Video], 2008, http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=0W8WGxFmxA8 (accessed
December 12, 2010); and “Tchaikovsky’s
Serenade for Strings - Seiji Ozawa - Berlin
Phil” [Video], 2011, http://www.youtube
.com/watch?v=IZgQh96hML0 (accessed
July 27, 2012).
15.Chagnon, “A Comparison,” 97; R.
Shayne Cofer, “Effects of ConductingGesture Instruction on Seventh-Grade
Band Students’ Performance Response
to Conducting Emblems,” Journal
of Research in Music Education
46 (Fall 1998): 360–73; John P.
Graulty, “Don’t Watch Me! Avoiding
Podium-Centered Rehearsals,”
Music Educators Journal 96 (June
2010): 53–56; and Hubert Toney,
“Expressive Ensemble Conducting and
Performance: A Qualitative Case
Study of One Conductor’s Practice”
(PhD diss., University of Illinois at
Urbana–Champaign, 2000).
16.Christopher Carl Chapman, “An
Investigation of Current Instructional
Practices for the Undergraduate
Instrumental Conducting Student
Concerning Left Hand Technique
and Facial Gestures” (DMA diss.,
University of Washington, Seattle,
2008); G. MacKay, “Mimes and
Conductors: Silent Artists, Music
Educators Journal 94 (May 2008):
22–28; Donald Jay Running,
“Conductor as Actor: A Collaborative
Method for Training Conductors
through Dynamic Muscularity”
(PhD diss., University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis and St. Paul, 2008); and
Ramona M. Wis, “Physical Metaphor in
the Choral Rehearsal: A Gesture-Based
Approach to Developing Vocal Skill
and Musical Understanding,” Choral
Journal 40 (October 1999): 25–33.
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