E v o l u t i o n o f t h e I n d i g e n o u s Village
Irrigation Systems of Sri Lanka
Traditional Beliefs Based
came
on
down
from the
Vidya J y o t h i
original
s e t t l e r s - "it is a p r o d u c t of t h e
Chronicles
Dr. C.R. Panabokke
mind a n d not a re-creation of w h a t
A
commonly-held belief a m o n g
actually
some
and
subsequently
commented
. s c h o l a r s in t h e p a s t , w a s
Perera (1960)
'the
historians
took
place."
As
that the a r t of irrigated agriculture
v e r s i o n is inlaid with m y t h a n d
r o m a n c e , b u t it is yet possible to
had
e x t r a c t from it a kernel of truth'.
migrated to Sri L a n k a from various
Two k e r n e l s of t r u t h which could
parts of continental India prior to
be identified a r e :
(b) the pool or r u d i m e n t a r y pond
in the Pali Vamsa chronicles, chiefly
beside w h i c h Kuveni w a s s e a t e d
Mahauamsa.
whilst
previous
s a y s of full o f r e p e t i t i o n s
and
contained u n b a l a n c e d details a n d
t h a t his revised work is free from
s u c h faults. The historicity of the
Mahavamsa
proved
h a s been
on
the
adequately
strength
of
c o n t e m p o r a r y Indian s o u r c e s both
literary and epigraphic.
Geiger
( 1 9 2 7 ) h a d b e e n a b l e to
bring
together ample evidences
from
o t h e r s o u r c e s to justify the faith
which
s c h o l a r s p l a c e d on
this
chronicle. The c o m m e n t a r y on the
Mahavamsa
is popularly known
the Mahavamsa-Tika
as
| Malalasekara,
1927).
now
L a n k a h a d , of necessity, to develop
on the old h a r d r o c k peneplain of
the
low
country
Furthermore,
dry
the
zone.
irrigation
s y s t e m s of the flat alluvial plains
of M e s o p o t a m i a were 'run-of-the-
Doubts Raised by
Discerning
river type' where there w a s no need
for s t o r a g e reservoirs, w h e r e a s for
Blinds
irrigation
in
the
hard
rock
In his m o n u m e n t a l volume titled,
peneplain of Sri L a n k a ' s dry zone,
'Ancient Ceylon', Henry P a r k e r
a s t o r a g e reservoir w a s a n essential
( 1 9 0 9 ) h a s distinguished
pre-requisite.
between
(a) digging c h a n n e l s a s w a s t h e
main requirement
for i r r i g a t e d
agriculture in the flat alluvial plains
in the arid e n v i r o n m e n t s of a n c i e n t
Mesopotamia 2 , 5 0 0 B . C . v e r s u s (b)
s t a t e s very clearly t h a t
which h e
'kernels' in t h e
latter p a r t of this text.
M a h a n a m a , t h e a u t h o r of t h e
works written by Poranas
spinning; a n d I shall build
u p o n t h e s e two
As c o m m e n t e d by Geiger ( 1 9 1 2 ) ,
the Dipawansa
r e p r e s e n t s the very
first u n a i d e d a t t e m p t m a d e a t
c r e a t i n g a n e p i c from t r a d i t i o n a l
s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s a v a i l a b l e . "It
p r e s e n t s a c u r i o u s m i x t u r e of
legends, m y t h s a n d history, b u t it
c o n t a i n s a kernel of historical t r u t h
b u r i e d in t r a d i t i o n a n d l e g e n d s ,
m o s t of which a r e of special value
in the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of history*.
his w o r k w a s b a s e d on
on w h a t we
irrigation s y s t e m s in a n c i e n t Sri
(a) Kuveni spinning cotton; a n d
on various f r a g m e n t a r y references
Mahavamsa^
Institute
y o u n g a l l u v i a l p l a i n s ; while t h e
This belief h a d been largely b a s e d
and
h a d developed
Agrarian
r e c o g n i s e d a s v a r i o u s t y p e s of
the arrival of Vijaya a r o u n d 5 0 0 B.C.
the Dipavamsa
Kobbekaduwa
Research
and Training
(HARTI)
Mahavamsa
w a s brought to this c o u n t r y by the
early Aryan settlers who
Hector
by
c o n s t r u c t i o n of reservoirs t h a t were
so
essential
for i r r i g a t i o n
in
p e n i n s u l a r India, a s well a s in the
b a s e m e n t r o c k terrain of Sri L a n k a .
He f u r t h e r s t a t e s t h a t " t h e r e is
n o t h i n g to i n d i c a t e t h a t the first
G a n g e t i c s e t t l e r s b r o u g h t with
them any knowledge
of t h e
c o n s t r u c t i o n of reservoirs, which a s
a general rule, were neither
required n o r m a d e in the districts
w h i c h w h e r e i n h a b i t e d by t h e i r
ancestors." Parker ( 1 9 0 9 ) also
s t a t e s t h a t ' c r e d i t for r e s e r v o i r
development a n d extension in the
island should go to the first S i n h a l a
rulers and their
responsible
advisors*.
On the foregoing considerations, it
is. highly doubtful t h a t t h e r e w a s
a n y kind of irrigation technology
transfer t h a t could have taken place
from the arid, m i d - e a s t irrigation
s y s t e m s t o t h e 'wet - a n d - d r y '
m o n s o o n t r o p i c s of t h e I n d i a n
D e c c a n a n d Sri Lanka's dry zone.
Brohier ( 1 9 7 5 ) questions the legend
of I n d o - A r y a n c o l o n i s a t i o n
Ceylon a r o u n d the 6
, h
of
century B.C.
in the following t e r m s , "how-be-it",
the
concept
of
irrigation
d e v e l o p m e n t in the d r y zone c a n
hardly be a c c e p t e d to have sparked
from j u s t t h i s l e g e n d a r y event of
V i j a y a a n d h i s followers - m o r e
likely it c o n n o t e s
t h e a r r i v a l of
s e v e r a l s m a l l b a n d s of m i g r a n t s
from peninsular India crossing over
to Ceylon in frail crafts in the preChristian era". This view point h a s
T h e Vijayan legend a s contained in
the Mahavamsa,
a c c o r d i n g to G. C.
Mendis ( 1 9 6 5 ) , is not a story t h a t
It should also be borne in mind t h a t
t h e a n c i e n t irrigation s y s t e m s of
Mesopotamia a n d the I n d u s valley
Economic Review: April/ May 2 0 1 0
been later supported by Seneviratne
( 2 0 0 4 ) a n d will be d i s c u s s e d in a
s u b s e q u e n t section of this p a p e r .
R e c e n t S t u d i e s on S e t t l e m e n t
Archaeology in S r i Lanka and
India
a s a detailed a c c o u n t of the Iron
t u r n provided a n efficient tool
Age in Peninsular India. A special
m a n to clear jungle with the u s e of
note
fire a n d iron a x e s , a c c o r d i n g to
should
be
made
of
his
statement t h a t "Kurakkan (Eluecine
Thanks
to
the
new
vistas
of
cnracana) is a tetraploid of African
for
Randhawa (1982).
k n o w l e d g e g e n e r a t e d in r e c e n t
p r o v e n a n c e , a n d t h a t its p r e s e n c e
It is now recognised t h a t the Early
y e a r s by Siran Deraniyagala ( 1 9 9 2 ,
in India a s early a s 2 0 0 0 B.C.
Iron Age (EIA) culture of Sri L a n k a
1 9 9 7 ) , we a r e now in a more reliable
interesting a s well a s intriguing".
is
position to be able to r e c o n s t r u c t
the sequential
development
of
h a d been a n intrusive c u l t u r e from
P e n i n s u l a r India, a c c o r d i n g to
Taken
in
conjunction
with
Seneviratne
(2004),
and
it
h u m a n settlement and associated
Velayuthan's
'Agro-Ecological
r e p r e s e n t s "sporadic m o v e m e n t s of
agricultural development
from
Regions of India ( 1 9 9 9 ) ' , a n d 'Agro-
small c o m m u n i t i e s from the early
l 5QQ - 5 0 0
E c o l o g i a l R e g i o n s of S r i L a n k a
Iron Age t e c h n o - c u l t u r a l complex of
B^C. (proto-historic) through to the
( 1 9 9 6 ) ' it is now possible to identify
Peninsular a n d D e c c a n India into
Early Historic 'circa' 5 0 0 B . C . a n d
comparable Agro-Ecological Regions
Sri Lanka".
Early Iron Age 'circa'
f
the s u b s e q u e n t Middle Historic 3 0 0
(AER) a c r o s s which a commonality
A.D.- 1 , 2 0 0 A.D. periods.
of
agro-technology
technology
a n d iirigatioh^ It h a s been further elaborated by
havfev Seneviratne ( 2 0 0 4 ) t h a t there is no
transfer could
Similarly, R u k s h a n J a y a w a r d e n a
selectively taken place.. The Agro-
e v i d e n c e of a m a s s i n v a s i o n
( 1 9 9 7 ) h a s been able': to r e c o n s t r u c t
Ecological Regions N u m b e r s 6 , 7
imagined Dravidian or Aryan 'races';
with a high degree of; reliability, the
a n d 8 l o c a t e d within the D e c c a n
rather what h a d taken place was 'an
growth of irrigated a g r i c u l t u r e
p l a t e a u of India a r e c o m p a r a b l e
i n t r u s i o n of s m a l l
communities
during the early historic period in
with the AER's DL 1, DL 2 a n d DL 5
bringing
with
Sri L a n k a ; a n d h e c o n c l u d e s t h a t
in Sri L a n k a .
the technique of building small
t a n k s and simpler sluices
{ksla
sorowwq)
the
preceded
c o n s t r u c t i o n of l a r g e t a n k s a n d
more
sophisticated
(Bisokotuwa
sluices
Of special relevance a n d value to
this study h a s been the first of the
"A H i s t o r y of
Agriculture in India " by R a n d h a w a
(1982),
Neolithic
which
and
deals
themselves
that
integrated
with the
pre-existing
s t o n e - u s i n g c o m m u n i t i e s . This is
more in a c c o r d a n c e with Brohier's
( 1 9 7 5 ) perception which
connotes
the 'crossing over to the island of
O n e s h o u l d a l s o t a k e n o t e of a
significant f e a t u r e of Sri L a n k a ' s
historical
trajectory,
which
according to S e n a k a B a n d a r a n a y a k e
( 2 0 0 0 ) , is c o n s i d e r e d a "relatively
late
and
extremely
rapid
t r a n s i t i o n f r o m t h e S t o n e Age
' h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r ' to a n a d v a n c e d
a n d literate a g r a r i a n civilisation".
This t r a n s f o r m a t i o n which s e e m s
to have taken place during the first
m i l l e n n i u m B . C . is, a c c o r d i n g to
S i r i w e e r a ( 2 0 0 4 ) , a k i n d of
historical leap t h a t b y - p a s s e s m a n y
of the complex s t a g e s of social a n d
technological development t h a t a r e
found in the proto-historic c u l t u r e s
of t h e I n d u s v a l l e y o r in t h e
d e v e l o p e d r e g i o n s in t h e I n d i a n
Deccan.
of
them
^ c ring logical a n d o t h e r c u l t u r a l
elements
The S t a t e o f Rain-fed Agriculture
in P r e - V i j a y a n S r i L a n k a and
Transition to the Small Village
Tank
Sorowwa).
four v o l u m e s
along
of
with
the
Chalcolithic
S e t t l e m e n t s in South India, a s well
The period 1 0 0 0 B . C . to 5 0 0 B . C . is
considered as the Pre-Vijayan
p e r i o d in t h i s p a p e r . It a l s o
c o r r e s p o n d s to the Early Iron Age
(EIA), the earliest manifestation of
w h i c h in S r i L a n k a h a s b e e n
r a d i o c a r b o n dated a s between 1 0 0 0
B . C a n d 8 0 0 B . C . by Deraniyagala
(1997).
This Pre-Vijayan period in Sri L a n k a
was, on the whole, c h a r a c t e r i s e d by
various forms of rain-fcri agriculture
t h a t were t h e m s e l v e s a t different
s t a g e s of development a n d which
o c c u r r e d together with other forms
of r u d i m e n t a r y 'slash-and-burn' a s
well a s v a r i o u s types of 'fire-stick'
farming a s practised by some of the
Australian aboriginals. Supporting
evidence for the prevalence of these
v a r i o u s f o r m s of e a r l y r a i n - f e d
a g r i c u l t u r e cctuld b e h a d f r o m
R a n d h a w a ' s ( 1 9 8 2 ) description of
t h e s t a t e of a g r i c u l t u r e in l a t e r
\ ^ d i c ( 1 0 0 0 B . C . t o 6 0 0 B.C.) period
of India. It w a s the m a s t e r y of iron
technology t h a t led to the invention
very small b a n d s of migrants in frail
crafts'!
It is also now e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t it
was this culture that introduced
d o m e s t i c a t e d c r o p s s u c h a s the
various types of millet together with
a n i m a l domestication, namely, the
h u m p e d bull a n d h o r s e to t h i s
country. Millet is a group n a m e for
a n u m b e r of c e r e a l s k n o w n a s
c o a r s e g r a i n s w h i c h a r e grown
u n d e r rain-fed c o n d i t i o n s on dry
l a n d s , a n d a r e of s h o r t duration,
three to three a n d a half m o n t h s
from s e e d i n g to h a r v e s t a n d ,
therefore, fit in very well to the dry
z o n e ' s rain-fed maha c u l t i v a t i o n
season. Kurakkan which is known
a s 'ragi ' in I n d i a , is t h e m o s t
w i d e s p r e a d of t h e millets in the
Indian s u b - c o n t i n e n t extending all
the way to Nepal a n d A s s a m .
By the 6
l h
c e n t u r y B.C. the Iron Age
w a s well established
a c r o s s most
of P e n i n s u l a r India, especially the
D e c c a n a c c o r d i n g to R a n d h a w a
of the socketed iron a x e , which in
( 1 9 8 2 ) . a x e s , iron p l o u g h s h a r e s and
Economic Review: April/ May 2 0 1 0
sickles of iron made farming more
efficient; and a large production of
iron together with manufacture of
iron axes enabled the people of
Deccan India to cut down virgin
forest and expand into hitherto
unexplored parts of the country.
A similar, but at the same time, a
slightly less advanced development
could be postulated for Sri Lanka
by around 5 0 0 B.C. With further
refinements that could have been
made in iron technology, sharper
and h a r d e r tools would have
become available for an accelerated
phase of cutting and burning the
hard wood forests of the dry zone
of Sri Lanka.
The early Iron Age (EIA) folk,
according to Seneviratne (2004),
"were both semi-nomadic as well as
sedentary communities; and they
thrived on a m u l t i - r e s o u r c e
spectrum of :
(a) hunter-gathering ;
(b) pastoral activities; and
(c) subsistence farming" all of which
had spread a c r o s s the different
habitats of the dry zone.
The hunter-gatherers thrived in the
savannah
and other light open
forests which best-suited these
semi-nomadic communities. The
dry damana grasslands, especially
in the Thamankaduwa region where
essentially the habitat of the roving
p a s t o r a l i s t s of t h a t period.
Somasiri and Panabokke (1968) had
studied the factors that govern the
occurrence and development of
these dry damana grasslands, and
they have concluded that these
grasslands a r e a 'biotic climax'
which have been kept in this state
by the annual firing by man (the
p a s t o r a l i s t s ) since the E a r l y
Historic period, and continue to the
present period. It is significant that
up to the present time there is a
great paucity, or even an absence,
of small village tank settlements
within these dry damana areas. At
the same time, a high incidence of
potsherds had been encountered
within these dry damana grassland
areas during the course of field soil
surveys conducted by the National
Soil Survey during the period 1960
to 1970.
With further improvements in iron
technology that had taken place in
Sri Lanka around this period, it had
become possible to produce harder
and better quality iron implements
which would have helped in a
selective felling and burning of the
tough, hard-wooded dry zone
forests. As a result, by 5 0 0 B.C.,
rain-fed c h e n a cultivation had
spread across most parts of the
dry zone wherever a combination of
a good quality of soil together with
an assured dry season supply of
domestic water was available. By
matching the 1:500,000 scale Soil
Map of Sri Lanka 2 0 0 2 edition,
against the hard-rock ground-water
regions of the dry zone, now termed
the Yegolith aquifer' (Panabokke,
2 0 0 7 ) , it h a s been possible to
identify the more favoured areas
where s u c h s e d e n t a r y 'chena'
f a r m e r s would have been the
pioneer s e t t l e r s (Panabokke,
Forthcoming).
By around 3 5 0 B.C. iron tools of
superior h a r d n e s s had been
developed which made it possible
for settlers to dig and excavate the
weathered underlying rock or '
regolith' down to depths of around
2 0 0 cm. This in turn enabled the
rain-fed chena farmers to make
rudimentary ponds of sufficient
depths in which they could save an
adequate supply of water to meet
their dry season's basic domestic
requirements (see, PanabokkeGroundwater Conditions in Sri
Lanka in Regolith Aquifers in the
Hard Basement Rock, 2007).
Sedentary
rain-fed
chena
cultivation, had by now, become the
dominant and most widespread
form of rain-fed agriculture in the
dry zone regions of the presentday North Central (Rajarata), North
Western (Wayamba) and Southern
(Ruhuna) Sri Lanka, especially
across the Reddish Brown Earth
region of the country (See, Soil Map
Economic Review: April/ May 2 0 1 0
of Sri Lanka Panabokke, 1996). The
three
principal c r o p s t h a t
dominated rain-fed agriculture at
this particular stage were: kurakkan
{Elucine coracana) a food crop;
gingelly (Sesamum indicum) an
oilseed crop; and cotton [Gossypium
Arboreum indicum) a clothing fibre
crop.
It is now known that kurakkan or
finger millet had been cultivated in
parts of Africa since the beginning
of the Iron Age, and it was the
staple crop of the countries in the
African regions. It was introduced
to India
some 3 , 5 0 0 years, ago
after which, it spread in Sri Lanka.
It is mainly grown a s a rain-fed crop
in chenas, and to a lesser extent
as an irrigated crop in the Jaffna
peninsula and in parts of South
India. Its grain is of great nutritive
value, and it can be stored for long
periods (for more than 5 0 years)
without application of insecticides.
The seeds are small and they dry
out quickly, and insects cannot live
inside them. It is also a hardy crop
which is less susceptible to pests
and diseases than any other grain
crop. It tolerates dry spells in its
early stages of growth, and it has a
g r e a t e r ability to utilise soil
phosphate reserves better than
other cereals. One could, therefore,
understand why it had become the
most dominant cereal food crop in
Sri Lanka during the Early and
Middle Historic Periods between
500 and 3 0 0 B.C.
Gingelly or 'sesame' is believed to
have been introduced from Africa to
India via Mesopotamia. Once
introduced and grown in India,
sesame entered the Indian diet and
cookery to such an extent that it
c a m e to be recognised a s a n
indigenous Indian crop. It was the
principal source of edible oil in the
ancient Sri Lankan diet during this
early period prior to the use of
c o c o n u t oil in the subsequent
period.
Based on the foregoing information
in respect of kurakkan (finger millet),
it could be justifiably inferred that
rain-fed agriculture of the Early a n d
the
Middle
requirements
H i s t o r i c p e r i o d s of Sri
Lanka, was essentially
kurakkan
increasing
expanding
food
of
an
population.
b a a e d , a n d t h a t the staple c r o p of
F u r t h e r m o r e , in order to get
t h e c o m m o n people a t t h a t time
beyond
was
. However, its one
s u b s i s t e n c e living, it w a s
Rudimentary Pond
m a i n limitation w a s t h a t its grain
r e c o g n i s e d t h a t irrigation
• S m a l l Village
Reservoir
kurakkan
yield p e r a c r e w a s less t h a n
specially
rice,
irrigated rice and
it,
the
status
had become a
The
of
Stream
necessity.
evolution
of
the
therefore, could not s u p p o r t rapidly
r u d i m e n t a r y p o n d s in the
i n c r e a s i n g population.
s t r e a m l a n d s c a p e of t h e
Figure 1:
Rudimentary Ponds and Position of
Village Reservoir
h a r d r o c k b a s e m e n t region
Of all d o m e s t i c a t e d rain-fed c r o p s
of t h a t period, cotton w a s the m o s t
widespread a n d also readily grown
c r o p in the Old World a c c o r d i n g to
Hutchinson ( 1 9 6 2 ) . The m a i n r a c e
h a s been described by Panabokke
reliable supply of water, especially
( 2 0 0 9 ) . T h e a c c o m p a n y i n g Figure 1,
for domestic needs, is a n essential
shows
prerequisite in o r d e r to tide over
of c o t t o n (Gossypium
basement.
Arboreum
indicum)
h a d been extensively
cultivated in India even earlier t h a n
1 0 0 0 B.C . It is, a l s o v e r y well
recognised t h a t the knowledge a n d
cultivation of c o t t o n h a d s p r e a d to
the rest of the world from India.
the
location
of
the
r u d i m e n t a r y p o n d s in the s t r e a m
the protracted dry season
landscape
o c c u r s every y e a r from May to late
of
the
hard
rock
that
S e p t e m b e r . Of m a n ' s h i e r a r c h i c a l
n e e d s of w a t e r , t h a t for drinking,
As further stated by Brohier ( 1 9 5 9 ) ,
washing
it is possible t h a t m a n y a primitive
requirements gets p r e c e d e n c e over
pond-reservoir w a s later converted
t h a t for irrigation.
to
a
tank
as
the
science
and
other
domestic
of
irrigation p r o g r e s s e d . B y a r o u n d
In the q u e s t for a n a s s u r e d , b u t
the second c e n t u r y B . C . transition
l i m i t e d s u p p l y of t h i s
It is, therefore, not surprising t h a t
to the s m a l l village
had
liquid water supply, it would soon
by 5 0 0 B.C. it would have been a
b e c o m e a l m o s t complete. According
have been recognised t h a t , in the
c o m m o n l y grown c r o p in Sri L a n k a ,
to Nicholas ( 1 9 5 9 ) , "the village t a n k
a b s e n c e of a n y form of n a t u r a l l y
more
w a s a well-established
f e a t u r e of
occurring shallow g r o u n d - w a t e r in
the dry zone by the beginning of the
t h i s h a r d r o c k b a s e m e n t region,
second c e n t u r y B.C".
s o m e m a n n e r of s u r f a c e storage of
specifically,
provided
the
because
most
it
acceptable
s o u r c e of fibre t h a t could be woven
tank
into c l o t h i n g m a t e r i a l s for daily
wear.
The earliest known c o t t o n fabrics
in the Old World belonged to the
Indus civilisation a t Mohenjo-Daro
in
Sind,
and
are
dated
to
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 0 0 0 B . C . It i s ,
therefore, not s u r p r i s i n g t h a t the
art of making simple cotton fabrics
would h a v e been prevalent in Sri
Lanka during
the
Pre-Vijayan
period. T h e Vijayan legend provides
a reliable indicator of the s t a t u s of
agriculture around that period of 5 0 0
B.C. which s t a t e s t h a t Kuveni w a s
seated u n d e r a tree spinning cotton
water in small r u d i m e n t a r y ponds
In c o n c l u s i o n ,
it s h o u l d
be
unequivocally recognised t h a t while
rain-fed a g r i c u l t u r e provided t h e
foundation for the evolution of the
small t a n k settlements, a n y future
a t t e m p t at s m a l l village t a n k
r e h a b i l i t a t i o n c a n n o t afford to
overlook the symbiotic role played
by the rain-fed c h e n a c o m p o n e n t in
r e s p e c t of the whole village
s e t t l e m e n t c o m p l e x . Small village
t a n k r e h a b i l i t a t i o n c a n n o t be
c o n s i d e r e d outside the c o n t e x t of
its a s s o c i a t e d rain-fed ' c h e n a '
lands, if it is to m a k e a n y headway
in future.
when Vijaya a n d his followers a r e
said to have landed in Sri L a n k a .
Similarly, t h e pool b e s i d e
Kuveni w a s
further
which
seated , indicates a
development
of
the
T h e Evolution and Spread o f the
S m a l l V i l l a g e T a n k and S m a l l
T a n k Cascade S y s t e m in North
Central Province o f Sri Lanka.
By
about
350
B.C.,
it
was
would h a v e been the only feasible
alternative.
As
perceptively
c o m m e n t e d by levers ( 1 8 9 9 ) "it may
be broadly s t a t e d t h a t
without
artificial s t o r a g e of water, h u m a n
e x i s t e n c e in t h e N o r t h C e n t r a l
Province would be impossible".
These early m a n - m a d e rudimentary
p o n d s w o u l d h a v e b e e n a b l e to
c a p t u r e the rainfall a s well a s the
local run-off during the rainy 'maha'
season, and where these ponds
were of sufficient depth, they could
have stored a n d held a n adequate
supply of w a t e r over the e n s u i n g
five-month dry season, during
which, by frugal u s e could have met
their
basic
domestic
water
requirements.
It would not have been very long
r u d i m e n t a r y p o n d s to a larger size
pool.
precious
At the o u t s e t , it should be b o r n e
before they would have discovered
in mind t h a t for a n y form of h u m a n
t h a t the ideal location for making
s e t t l e m e n t to g e t e s t a b l i s h e d
s u c h s u r f a c e storage rudimentary
in
experienced t h a t rain-fed c h e n a
t h e e x a c t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t of
Sri
p o n d s were t h e n u m e r o u s s m a l l
c u l t i v a t i o n a l o n e c o u l d not meet
L a n k a ' s dry zone, a n a s s u r e d a n d a
inland valleys that dissect or 'crissEconomic Review: April/ May 2010
—
families located around this small
reservoir-pond. This could be
considered the earliest form of
small tank settlement from which
grew out the traditional small tank
village as we now recognise it. In
other words, it could be broadly
stated * that the DNA of Sri Lanka's
tank irrigation civilisation had
taken shape at this stage of its
evolution*
cross' the undulating landscape of
the North Central dry zone. Quite
fortuitously, the highest density of
such small linear inland valleys
h a p p e n s to o c c u r a r o u n d the
central pert of the North Central
Province. This is quite evident by
reference to 1 inch to 1 mile topo
sheets of the region as well a s by
s t e r e o s c o p i c view
of a i r
photographs (Also see Panabokke
(2009), pages 12 - 17 for further
elaboration).
It is, therefore, not surprising that
this particular region afforded the
best opportunities for the early
s e t t l e r s to locate t h e s e small
rudimentary ponds of sufficient
depth which could provide the
domestic water needs of the early
settlers even during prolonged dry
periods. Furthermore, the inland
valley geomorphic location provided
the most reliable and dependable
position in this
undulating
landscape for a sustainable harvest
and storage of water.
With further improvements and
refinements in iron technology, it
was possible to make harder and
sharper iron tools which would
have enabled a deeper penetration
and digging and excavation of
deeper ponds. Around 3 0 0 B.C. iron
tools of superior hardness that
could engrave the 'Brahmi' scripts
oa the hard rock, drip-ledges of
caves had also been perfected. As
many as 4 , 0 0 0 lithic inscriptions on
the very hard rock surfaces of this
country have been found which
have been reliably dated to the
period between 2 5 0 B.C. and 50 A.D.
(Raj Somadeva, 1997).
With such iron tools of superior
h a r d n e s s it would have been
possible
to dig below
the
decomposing rock to depths of more
than 1.5 to 2 . 0 metres. This, in no
u n c e r t a i n t e r m s , enabled the
advance
from
the
small
rudimentary pond to the earliest
prototype of the s m a l l village
reservoir with a larger storage
capacity; and also with an adequate
storage and supply of water that
could meet the needs of several
By the third century B.C., stable
human settlements had become
well established around this early
prototype of the small village tanks.
The size or storage volume of these
t a n k s in their early s t a g e s ,
especially in relation to their depth,
was just about sufficient to meet
the domestic needs of the family
settlers around these very small
tanks. Furthermore, at this stage
of evolution, their primary food
needs came from 'swidden' or rainfed chena cultivation with kurakkan
being the main cereal component.
and management throughout the
irrigation history of this country".
He has also brought out the special
features of the small tank cascade
s y s t e m s in relation to the
traditional s e t t l e m e n t s of the
Raj arata in the special publication
titled, 'Food Security and Small
Tanks in Sri Lanka'. Of special
significance is, his recognition of
indigenous terms such as heenna
(low mounds of earth), mudunna
(summit) and elawaka ( a sideway
elevating land in the keel of a
shallow valley and several other
traditionally used n a m e s for
various land forms associated with
a cascade.
The Small Anicut
{Amunaaf
of the
Kingdom
Systems
Kandyan
During the Kandyan Period (1524 1 8 1 5 ) , there was a significant
migration of people from the dry
zone to the mid and up-country
regions of the country. As stated
by Brohier (1975)," the certainty of
Once they had advanced to a stage rain which seldom failed in the Hill
where they were able to construct Country regions rendered a tank
system
for storing water
village tanks with a larger storage
unnecessary.... these up-country
capacity, the cultivation of rice
fields were aswaddumised into a
b e c a m e possible. One special
succession of terraces carved out
circumstance that favoured the
of the sloping land, and these
cultivation of wetland rice in that liyaddes were muddied for growing
part of the land immediately below rice" This aspect of land use is
the small tank, was essentially the confined to what has come to be
• hydromorphic or seasonally wet soil called the Kandyan region. He
condition.
further states * the descendants of
the g r e a t e n g i n e e r s who were
Earlier in this chapter, mention unrivalled in their knowledge of the
was made of the numerous small art of irrigation were able to adapt
inland valleys that dissect or 'criss­ their science to the mountain zone
cross' the undulating landscape of with great s u c c e s s * He further
the North Central Province. The states * the kings, nobles and the
early settlers in this landscape people who sought refuge in the
took advantage of this feature to m o u n t a i n s had to establish a
make chains of small tanks along system of an indigenous agriculture
the length of these shallow valleys, which had hitherto supplied them
which gave rise to the development with food on a p e r m a n e n t ,
of 'cascades' of small tanks that sedentary basis. They threw small
were d i s c u s s e d by Madduma blockades or anicuts (most of them
B a n d a r a ( 1 9 8 5 ) and M.U.A. reinforced with sticks and brush­
wood) across the streams, to turn
Tennakoon (1994) .
the water into small channels to
irrigate the liyaddas'.
Tennakoon (1994) states that, "the
c a s c a d e c o n c e p t is an age-old
concept which had been the linking In the mountainous regions of Sri
thread of irrigation development Lanka, there are numerous Tun-of-
Economic Review: April/ May 2010
river' s y s t e m s k n o w n a s
amunas
(anicuts). In a path-finding
study
of the a n i c u t s y s t e m of the Upper
Walawe River B a s i n by F. Molle et.
a l . , ( 2 0 0 3 ) , it is s t a t e d "Sri L a n k a is
f a m o u s for the n u m e r o u s a n i c u t s
a n d s m a l l t a n k s . However,
these
t a n k s o c c u p y only one p a r t of the
island (namely, the dry zone). The
a n i c u t s also c o n s t i t u t e a very
prominent feature of w a t e r u s e in
t h e i s l a n d a s c o u l d be s e e n
This Figure p r e p a r e d by Molle et al
is best c o m p a r e d with Figure 1, of
Page 3
of P a n a b o k k e ' s
' Small
Distribution in t h e
Dry Zone ( 2 0 0 9 ) .
The
most
reliable
statistics
a v a i l a b l e to d a t e in r e s p e c t o f
village irrigation s y s t e m s ,
s m a l l village
both
t a n k s , a s well a s
s m a l l a n i c u t s (amunas)
provided by the
is t h a t
Village Irrigation
Survey 2 0 0 2 ' published
by t h e
D e p a r t m e n t of A g r a r i a n S e r v i c e s .
The r e s u l t s of this survey have been
published in a set of 2 5 volumes,
representing
each
of
Figure 2:
Anicuts in Sri Lanka
N
A
Upper Uda Walawe basin
U Diatricti
All anicuts in Sri Lanka
in
a c c o m p a n y i n g Figure 2 of this text.
Village T a n k
the m o r e reliable w a t e r
supply t h a t o b t a i n s in the
a n i c u t {amuna)
system
enables
farmers
to
achieve a higher cropping
intensity
t h a n in t h e
small village t a n k s of the
dry zone which have a less
reliable w a t e r s u p p l y a s
well a s a c o m p a r a t i v e l y
lower endowment of water.
the
25
administrative districts covered in
the survey. T h e key findings from
It is a l s o o b s e r v e d t h a t
approximately 8 0 per c e n t
of the a n i c u t s a r e located
in the districts of Badulla,
Kandy, R a t n a p u r a and
Source: Department of Agrarian Services
N u w a r a Eliya with the
B a d u l l a District having a
total of approximately 3 , 6 0 0 a n i c u t s in t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , L . S .
a n d Kandy 1 , 5 0 0 , R a t n a p u r a 1 , 4 0 0 D e w a r a j a ( 1 9 9 5 ) s t a t e s , . " T h e
and
Nuwara
Eliya
1 , 1 0 0 economy of the Kandyan kingdom
respectively. By c o m p a r i n g the
was a purely agrarian
one,
distribution p a t t e r n of the a n i c u t s d e p e n d a n t o n t h e
successful
a g a i n s t the Agro-Ecological Regions cultivation of paddy. In the Kandyan
(AER) of Sri L a n k a , it could also be
a r e a s the s t e e p m o u n t a i n slopes
observed t h a t the highest density
w e r e t e r r a c e d o r c u t into s t e p s
of small a n i c u t s y s t e m s a r e located
t h r e e to eight feet wide, a n d the
within t h e mid- a n d u p - c o u n t r y w a t e r c o l l e c t e d , r e g u l a t e d a n d
Intermediate Zones of the Badulla,
skilfully distributed from s u m m i t to
Nuwara Eliya a n d Kandy Districts foot, a t e c h n i q u e t h a t h a s b e e n
all of which c o n s t i t u t e the former
preserved u n c h a n g e d to this day."
Kandy a n kingdom.
It is a l s o s t a t e d t h a t all p a d d y
this survey a r e given in Table 1.
Although the total n u m b e r of a n i c u t
s y s t e m s ( 1 2 , 9 5 0 ) is nearly the s a m e
a s the total n u m b e r of small t a n k s
( 1 1 , 2 6 1 ) , the total c o m m a n d a r e a of
all a n i c u t s put t o g e t h e r ( 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 )
is o n l y a b o u t h a l f t h e t o t a l
c o m m a n d a r e a ( 5 4 7 , 0 0 0 ) of t h e
small t a n k s p u t together a s shown
in Table 1 below.
Despite this, however, the total
n u m b e r of farm families benefiting
from the a n i c u t s {amunas) is nearly
the s a m e a s the n u m b e r benefiting
from small village t a n k s . Moreover,
a s c o u l d be s e e n in t h e T a b l e 1,
B a s e d on his s t u d y of the U p p e r
W a l a w e B a s i n , Molle
(2003)
concludes that, " the upper
c a t c h m e n t of the Walawe B a s i n had
been the site of m a n y early h u m a n
settlements, a n d kingdoms c e n t r e d
a r o u n d cities s u c h a s B a l a n g o d a o r
Kaltota which developed from the
s e c o n d c e n t u r y B . C . to the fifteenth
c e n t u r y A.D. T h e r e g i o n t h e n
d e c l i n e d a n d it w a s s p a r s e l y
populated
when the
British
e s t a b l i s h e d t e a cultivation in t h e
area.
l a n d s in the kingdom were subject
to c o m p u l s o r y s e r v i c e s , both
military a n d otherwise, during the
reigns of the former rulers.
W h a t is of s p e c i a l i m p o r t a n c e of
these
anicut
systems
of
the
K a n d y a n k i n g d o m is t h e i r g r e a t
durability a n d sustainability over
the p a s t c e n t u r i e s u p to p r e s e n t
t i m e s . It is t h i s d u r a b i l i t y
and
stability that enabled the rulers of
the Kandyan kingdom,
notably
R a j a s i n g h e II (Deveni Rajasinghe)
to e n g a g e in battle a n d drive out
Writing on the social a n d e c o n o m i c
conditions in the Kandyan kingdom
the P o r t u g u e s e a n d the Hollanders.
Unlike the village t a n k s in the dry
zone which could be easily breached
a n d d e s t r o y e d by t h e
invading
Table 1: Number o f small t a n k s and anicuts, and their command
areas and number o f farm families benefiting
a r m i e s , the a n i c u t s y s t e m s of the
Type of Irrigation
N u m b e r of farmer
could not be easily d a m a g e d and
Families
334,000
349,000
rendered non-functional, especially
Small T a n k s
Anicuts (Amunas)
Total n u m b e r C o m m a n d Area
(acres)
11,261
547,000
12,950
250,000
Source: Department of Agrarian Services, 2 0 0 2 .
Hill Country were quite robust, a n d
t h o s e l o c a t e d within t h e
inland
valley s y s t e m s a n d t h e t e r r a c e d
slopes of the l a n d s c a p e . At worst,
Economic Review: April/ May 2 0 1 0
Deraniyagala, S.U. (1992). Pre and Panabokke, CR. (2009). Small Village
Post Historic Settlement in Sri Lanka, Tank Systems of Sri Lanka,
HARTI.P85
Economic Review, 1997. Vol 23.
the enemy could only destroy the
standing crop at the harvesting
stage a s c a r r i e d o u t by the
retreating Portuguese armies and
later by the British in the aftermath
of the Vva Rebellion.
John Davy (1821), in his " Account
of the Interior of Ceylon' compiled
almost 2 0 0 years ago states that,
*in
no p a r t of t h e world is
agriculture more respected or more
followed than in the interior of
Ceylon (referring to the Kandyan
kingdom) where rice cultivation is
carried out with utmost, care and
attention." Taken together with
Robert Knox's (1681) very detailed
and a c c u r a t e description of the
various stages of rice cultivation in
the Kandyan kingdom, there is but
little doubt t h a t rice (paddy)
cultivation u n d e r t h e s e s m a l l
a n i c u t s y s t e m s would have
constituted the central core of the
Kandyan culture a s well a s its
distinctive civilisation which had
helpd it to ^endure against repeated
hostilities.
Panabokke, CR. (2007). Groundwater
Conditions in Sri Lanka, National.
Science Foundation.P150.
Davy, John (1821). An Account of the
Interior of Ceylon,.Reprint. 1969
Parker, Henry (1909). Ancient Ceylon
Luzgoc, London.
Geiger, W. (1912). The Dipawamsa
and Mahawamsa, Govt. Printer,
Colombo.
Perera, L.S. (1960) Univ. Ceylon
Review. P103.
Geiger, W. (1927). Pali Literature and
Language. Calcutta
Randhawa, M.S. (1982). A History of
Agriculture in India, I.C.A.R. New
Delhi.
Hutchinson, J . B . ( 1 9 6 2 ) . The
Classification of Cotton in Asia and
Africa. World crops. O.U.P.
Seneviratne, S. (2004). G.C. Mendis
Memorial Lecture, Problems ofCeylon
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levers," R.W. (1899) Manual of the
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Siriwera, W.I. (2004). History of Sri
Lanka, Pre,History and Proto-History.
Jayakody.
Jayawardena, Rukshan ( 1 9 9 7 ) .
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Somasiri, S. and Panabokke, C R .
(1968). S.L Ass. Advmt. Sci Annual
Session.
Knox, Robert ( 1 6 8 1 ) . A Historic
Relation of Ceylon. Reprint. 1958
Somadeva, Raj (1997). Economy in
Early Sri Lanka, Economic Review
Vol. 23, People's Bank.
Malalasekera ( 1 9 2 8 ) . The Pali
Literature ofCeylon. Royal Asiatic Soc.
Mendis, G.C. (1965). Problems of
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References:
Brohier, R.L. (1975). Pood and the
People, Lake House Publication.
Devaraja, Lorna, S. ( 1 9 9 5 ) . The
Kandyan Kingdom, Vol. 11 U.O.P
History of Sri Lanka.
Madduma Bandara, C M . (1985).
Catchment Ecosystems and Village
Tank Cascades. Redel Pabe.
Bandaranayake, Senaka (2000).
Settlement Patterns of Proto-historic
Sri Lanka.
Tennakoon, M.U.A. (1994). Cascade
or EUangawa. (Sinhala Original)
Tennakoon. M.U.A. (2002) Evolution
of Small Tank System' in Food Security
and Small Tank System , National
Science Council.
Tennakoon. M.U.A.(2005). EUangawa
(Sinhala Original) S.Godage and Sons.
Colombo 10.
Molle, F. et al. (2003). Anicut Systems
in Sri Lanka, IWMI, Working Paper
No. 61.
Velayuthan, M. ( 1 9 9 9 ) . AgroDeraniyagala, S.U. (1992). The Pre- .
Ecological Regions of India, I.C.A.R.,
History of Sri Lanka Vol. 1 8s 2. Arch. Nicholas C.W. ( 1 9 5 9 ) History of Nagpur, India.
_
Ceylon. Vol. 1 Ch.6. U.O.P.
Dept. Colombo
J3)
:
? /
1
1. M m ( B U W r ' C U ( Y l « 3 f f ~
SLUICE-VERTICALS PIPES A. O U T L E T PIPE COLLARS
J
- • ' - ^ - i WSTTOW SLOPE OF ftJNO
6. BUNQ OF WEWA
3 ME7/-8A« [BURNT CLW OUtLEI PIPES)
7. FULL SUPPLY LEVEL
6 SILL LEVEL OF SLUICE
4 C l / Y OUTLET
I
1 "
r PIPE SURR0UW
2. AUOUSWA (BURNT CLAY JUNCTION SLOCK)
Main Feature of Haiti Horowwa
2. JUNCTION BLOCK
3, S L U C E - O U T L E T PIPES
9 SILL L E V E L OF SLUICE
10 FULL SUPPLY L E V E L
Main Feature of Siras-keta Horowwa (Inlet side)
(Panabokke, C.R.(2009), Small Village Tank Systems o f Sri Lanka: Their Evolution, Setting, Distribution and Essential Functions. HARTt, Colombo See page 7 9 to 8 1 )
—
Economic Review: April/ May 2010