S B O R N l K PRAC:I F I L O Z O F I C K E F A K U L T Y B R N E N S K E U N I V E R Z 1 T Y
STUDIA MINORA FAOULTATIS PH1LOSOPHICAE UNIVERSITAT1S BRUNENSIS
K 15 (1993) - B R N O S T U D I E S IN E N O L I S H 2 0
CAN THE FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVE OF A SPOKEN SENTENCE BE
PREDICTED FROM THAT OF ITS WRITTEN COUNTERPART?
AN INQUIRY BASED ON A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF J . D. O'CONNOR'S AND R. KINGDON'S TONETIC
TRANSCRIPTIONS OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN'S GETTYSBURG ADDRESS
Jan Firbas
1 The framework of the analysis, pp. 23-G. 2 Notes on O'Connor's and Kingdon's tonelic
transcriptions, pp. 20-9. 3 The non-theme in Hie written text of The Gettysburg Address,
pp. 29-33. 4 The non-1 heme in O'Connor's tonetle transcription, pp. 33-8. 5 The nontheme In Kingdon's tonelic transcription, pp. 38-40. C The theme in the written text of The
Gettysburg Address, pp. 40-4. 7 The Iheme in O'Connor's tonetle transcription, pp. 44-6.
8 The theme in Kingdon's tonelic transcription, pp. 4fi-7. 9 Summing up the answer to the
question posed, pp. 47-9.
1 THE FRAMEWORK OF THE ANALYSIS
In a t t e m p t i n g to give a n a n s w e r to the q u e s t i o n p o s e d b y the title of
the present paper, I propose to a n a l y s e two tonetic t r a n s c r i p t i o n s of
A b r a h a m L i n c o l n ' s Gettysburg
Address,
one of w h i c h h a s b e e n offered
b y Roger K i n g d o n (1958) a n d the other b y J . D . O ' C o n n o r (1971). I s h a l l
do so i n o r d e r to i n q u i r e into the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the f u n c t i o n a l
perspectives of Lhe s e n t e n c e s of the w r i t t e n text of the Address a n d the
f u n c t i o n a l perspectives of t h e i r tonetic i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s as reflected b y
the two t r a n s c r i p t i o n s . In c a r r y i n g out the a n a l y s i s , I s h a l l h a v e r e c o u r s e
to the theory of f u n c t i o n a l sentence perspective (FSP) as p r e s e n t e d i n
F i r b a s 1 9 9 2 . F o r the benefit of the reader w h o m a y not be f a m i l i a r w i t h
m y a p p r o a c h to F S P , I s h a l l briefly r e c a l l at least s o m e of the e s s e n t i a l
c o n c l u s i o n s offered b y F i r b a s 1992 t h a t c o n c e r n (a) the degrees of c o m ­
m u n i c a t i v e d y n a m i s m (CD), (b) the degrees of p r o s o d i c p r o m i n e n c e (PP),
(c) the o p e r a t i o n of i n t o n a t i o n as a factor of F S P , a n d (d) the r e l a t i o n s h i p
between the w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e a n d the s p o k e n l a n g u a g e . F o r a d e t a i l e d
d i s c u s s i o n a n d i l l u s t r a t i o n s of these a n d other c o n c e p t s e m p l o y e d i n m y
a p p r o a c h , I beg the reader to refer to F i r b a s 1 9 9 2 . (In the present paper,
references to t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n o p e n w i t h the y e a r of p u b l i c a t i o n , 1992,
w i t h o u t s t a t i n g the n a m e of the author.)
24
J A N FIRBAS
(a) DEGREES OF COMMUNICATIVE DYNAMISM (CD)
In the act of c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a s y n t a c t i c c o m p o n e n t serves as a c o m ­
m u n i c a t i v e u n i t (Svoboda 1968; 1981.4). A s I see it, it does so t h r o u g h
its s e m a n t i c c o n t e n t . T h e s t r u c t u r e of w h i c h it forms p a r t serves as a
c o m m u n i c a t i v e field. P a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the development of the c o m m u n i ­
c a t i o n it c a r r i e s a degree of c o m m u n i c a t i v e d y n a m i s m (CD). T h e degree
of C D c a r r i e d b y a u n i t is d e t e r m i n e d b y the relative extent to w h i c h the
u n i t c o n t r i b u t e s t o w a r d s the development of the c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h i n
the c o m m u n i c a t i v e field (1992.7-8). T h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n of degrees over the
c o m m u n i c a t i v e u n i t s d e t e r m i n e s the f u n c t i o n a l perspective of the field.
It is the c o m m u n i c a t i v e u n i t c a r r y i n g the h i g h e s t degree of C D towards
w h i c h the field i s p e r s p e c t i v e d (1992.6).
T h e r e is a h i e r a r c h y of fields (Svoboda 1968). A first r a n k c o m m u n i c a ­
tive field is p r o v i d e d b y the sentence. A n y of its s y n t a c t i c c o n s t i t u e n t s
t h a t i s i m p l e m e n t e d as a s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e , s e m i c l a u s e or n o u n p h r a s e
p r o v i d e s a s e c o n d r a n k c o m m u n i c a t i v e field (subfield). In fact, a c o n s t i ­
t u e n t of a n y r a n k i m p l e m e n t e d i n the way described provides a c o m m u ­
nicative field (subfield) of lower r a n k . The a n a l y s i s offered by the present
p a p e r w i l l deal w i t h subfields provived by subordinate clauses a n d semic l a u s e s . S u b f i e l d s provided by n o u n p h r a s e s w i l l be dealt w i t h only occa­
sionally.
In the w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e the d i s t r i b u t i o n of degrees of C D over a c o m ­
m u n i c a t i v e field is the o u t c o m e of a n inteqslay of three factors: (a) l i n e a r
m o d i f i c a t i o n , (ii) the c o n t e x t u a l factor a n d (iii) the s e m a n t i c factor. A t the
m o m e n t the w r i t t e n sentence i s p r o d u c e d a r i d / o r perceived, these factors
operate as formative forces that co-operate i n modifying the i n t r i n s i c
c o m m u n i c a t i v e v a l u e s w i t h w h i c h the s y n t a c t i c c o n s t i t u e n t s enter into
the c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h e i n t e r p l a y of the factors t a k e s place as follows: (i)
U n l e s s w o r k e d c o u n t e r to b y the other two factors, l i n e a r modification
(1992.6-11) g r a d u a l l y raises the i n t r i n s i c c o m m u n i c a t i v e v a l u e s of the
u n i t s i n the d i r e c t i o n from the b e g i n n i n g to the e n d of the field. T h e closer
to the e n d a u n i t comes to s t a n d , the more it c o n t r i b u t e s towards the
development ol the c o m m u n i c a t i o n - i n other w o r d s . Hie higher degree of
C D it carries w i t h i n the field, (ii) T h e c o n t e x t u a l factor (1992.21-40) pre­
d o m i n a t e s over b o t h l i n e a r m o d i f i c a t i o n a n d the s e m a n t i c factor i n that a
u n i t c o n v e y i n g i n f o r m a t i o n retrievable from the i m m e d i a t e l y relevant
context (1992.22-5), v e r b a l or s i t u a t i o n a l , c o n t r i b u t e s less towards the
further development of the c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d therefore carries a lower
degree of C D t h a n a u n i t c o n v e y i n g i n f o r m a t i o n irretrievable from that
section of context, (iii) If not prevented b y the c o n t e x t u a l factor, the
s e m a n t i c factor (1992.41-65) operates t h r o u g h the s e m a n t i c c h a r a c t e r s
of the u n i t s a n d the c h a r a c t e r of their s e m a n t i c relations, these c h a r a c ­
teristics either p e r m i t t i n g l i n e a r m o d i f i c a t i o n to assert itself or w o r k i n g
c o u n t e r to it. Seen i n this light, the degree of C D c a r r i e d by a u n i t i s its
i n t r i n s i c c o m m u n i c a t i v e v a l u e modified b y the o u t c o m e of the interplay
of F S P factors at the m o m e n t of u t t e r a n c e a n d / o r perception.
CAN T H E FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVE O F A SPOKEN S E N T E N C E B E PREDICTED
FRc )M T H A T O F ITS W R I T T E N C O U N T E R P A R T ?
25
Let me j u s t a d d three i m p o r t a n t notes, (i) W h a t h a s b e e n t e r m e d a
c o m m u n i c a t i v e field serves a s a d i s t r i b u t i o n a l field of degrees of C D . (ii)
A s long a s it c o n v e y s s o m e m e a n i n g , a n y l i n g u i s t i c element p a r t i c i p a t e s
i n the d e v e l o p m e n t of the c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d a c t s as a c a r r i e r of C D .
B u t as not every l i n g u i s t i c element c a n f u n c t i o n a s a s y n t a c t i c c o n s t i t u ­
ent, it h a s Lo be e m p h a s i z e d that w h e r e a s every c o m m u n i c a t i v e u n i t is a
c a r r i e r of a decree or degrees of C D , not every c a r r i e r of C D serves as a
c o m m u n i c a t i v e u n i t (1992.19). (iii) In the s p o k e n l a n g u a g e the i n t e r p l a y
of the F S P factors is j o i n e d b y i n t o n a t i o n .
0)) DEGREES OF PROSOD1C PROMINENCE (PP)
In the s p o k e n language a d i s t r i b u t i o n a l field of C D of a n y r a n k s i m u l ­
t a n e o u s l y serves as a d i s t r i b u t i o n a l field of p r o s o d i c p r o m i n e n c e (PP).
Degrees of P P are s i g n a l l e d b y p r o s o d i c features of different p h o n i c type.
F o r i n s t a n c e , O ' C o n n o r a n d A r n o l d d i s t i n g u i s h (i) a b s e n c e of stress, (ii)
u n a c c e n t e d stress, (iii) accented s t r e s s a n d (iv) n u c l e a r s t r e s s ( 1 9 7 3 . 3 1 6). I accept t h e i r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . A c c o r d i n g to t h e m , the m o s t p r o m i n e n t
p r o s o d i c feature i s the n u c l e u s , w h i c h a c t s as the c o n s t i t u t i v e feature of
w h a t m a y be t e r m e d 'the tone u n i t ' (a t e r m not u s e d b y them). If fully
i m p l e m e n t e d , the tone u n i t c o n s i s t s of a p r e - h e a d , h e a d , n u c l e u s a n d
tail. In c o n t r a s t w i t h the p r e - h e a d a n d the t a i l , the h e a d s h o w s greater
salience. It i s the s t r e s s e s that c a u s e t h i s s a l i e n c e t h a t are r e g a r d e d as
accented. ( A c c e n l e d n e s s n a t u r a l l y also a c c o m p a n i e s n u c l e a r stress.) O n
the other h a n d , the s t r e s s e s t h a t o c c u r i n the p r e - h e a d a n d the tail are
regarded as u n a c c e n t e d . T h e g a m u t of the four degrees J u s t c h a r a c t e r i z ­
ed is e x p a n d a b l e . If a d i s t r i b u t i o n a l field c o n t a i n s m o r e p r o s o d i c fea­
t u r e s of the s a m e p h o n i c type, t h e n of two features of s u c h type the one
o c c u r r i n g later i n the d i s t r i b u t i o n a l field i s c o n s i d e r e d to be p r o s o d i c a l l y
more p r o m i n e n t . (This is d u e to the o p e r a t i o n of l i n e a r m o d i f i c a t i o n i n
the s p o k e n language.) O n e of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t q u a l i f i c a t i o n s of t h i s
o b s e r v a t i o n is n e c e s s i t a t e d w h e n w i t h i n a d i s t r i b u t i o n a l field a fall is fol­
lowed by a l o w rise. If t h i s o c c u r s , it i s the fall t h a t exceeds the l o w r i s e
i n P P (1992.151-3). A n i m p o r t a n t p h e n o m e n o n i s the representative
p r o s o d i c feature of a c o m m u n i c a t i v e u n i t . A c o m m u n i c a t i v e u n i t c a n
bear m o r e p r o s o d i c features t h a n one. It i s its m o s t p r o m i n e n t p r o s o d i c
feature that r e p r e s e n t s the u n i t i n r e l a t i o n to the o t h e r u n i t s of the
s a m e r a n k , i . e. i n r e l a t i o n to the other u n i t s o c c u r r i n g i n the s a m e
d i s t r i b u t i o n a l field (1992.149-50).
(c) INTONATION
F o l l o w i n g M a t h e s i u s , D a n e s h a s further developed the c o n c e p t i o n of
three f u n c t i o n a l s p h e r e s of sentence i n t o n a t i o n : (i) that of the s t r u c l u r a tion f u n c t i o n , (ii) that of F S P , a n d (iii) that w i t h i n w h i c h ' i n t o n a t i o n
26
J A N FIRBAS
r e p r e s e n t s a s t e a d y subjective c o m m e n t a r y o n the u t t e r a n c e , m o s t l y
w i t h a n emotive or e m o t i o n a l colouring* (Danes 1987.19-20). T h e pres­
ent i n q u i r y c o n c e r n s m a i n l y s p h e r e s (if) a n d (iii). In d o i n g so, it w i l l exa­
m i n e the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the d i s t r i b u t i o n of degrees of C D as
d e t e r m i n e d b y the n o n - p r o s o d i c factors of F S P a n d the d i s t r i b u t i o n of
degrees of P P . A s to the subjective c o m m e n t a r y s u p p l i e d b y i n t o n a t i o n ,
it i s a s p e c i a l type of i n f o r m a t i o n . In fact, it is a n integral part of oral
c o m m u n i c a t i o n (see U h l e n b e c k 1983.17). In c o n s e q u e n c e , it i s capable
of r a i s i n g degrees of C D c a r r i e d b y the c o m m u n i c a t i v e u n i t s a n d so affect­
i n g the d i s t r i b u t i o n of C D over the fields c o n s t i t u t e d b y these u n i t s .
(d) THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE WRITTEN AND THE SPOKEN LANGUAGE
I s u b s c r i b e to V a c h e k ' s extensive i n q u i r i e s into the w r i t t e n language
(e. g. V a c h e k 1989). T h e y have e s t a b l i s h e d the s p o k e n language a n d the
w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e as two language n o r m s w h i c h differ not only m a t e r i a l l y
(phonic vs. g r a p h i c s u b s t a n c e ) b u t also f u n c t i o n a l l y (cf., e. g., i b i d . 54).
T h e i r s u b s t a n c e b e i n g p h o n i c , the p r o s o d i c features are not m e a n s of
the w r i t t e n language. A s a factor of F S P , i n t o n a t i o n , w h i c h does not ope­
rate i n the w r i t t e n language, j o i n s the i n t e r p l a y of F S P factors i n the
s p o k e n language. It does so by p r o d u c i n g different degrees of P P .
2 NOTES ON O'CONNOR'S AND KINGDON'S TONETIC TRANSCRIPTIONS
In a n a l y s i n g O ' C o n n o r ' s a n d K i n g d o n ' s tonetic t r a n s c r i p t i o n s of
A b r a h a m L i n c o l n ' s Getlysburg
Address,
I a m e x t e n d i n g a series of text
a n a l y s e s c a r r i e d o u t from the p o i n t of view of F S P (see, e. g., F i r b a s
1987, 1 9 8 9 a n d 1992). D e a l i n g w i t h the text s e n t e n c e b y sentence a n d
t a k i n g into c o n s i d e r a t i o n the i n t e r p l a y of a l l the F S P factors involved
n e c e s s a r i l y proves to be a lengthy p r o c e d u r e , b u t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y serves
as a u s e f u l fool for testing the v i a b i l i t y of the theory of F S P a n d for help­
i n g to t h r o w l i g h t o n the r e l a t i o n s h i p between s e m a n t i c s , s y n t a x , F S P
a n d i n t o n a t i o n i n g e n e r a l a n d o n s u c h a specific p r o b l e m as that posed
b y the title of the p r e s e n t p a p e r i n p a r t i c u l a r . B u t before s t a r t i n g the
a n a l y s i s , I m u s t i n s e r t s o m e notes o n O ' C o n n o r ' s a n d K i n g d o n ' s tonetic
transcriptions.
It i s i m p o r t a n t to note t h a t K i n g d o n ' s a p p r o a c h , l i k e that of O ' C o n n o r
(or O ' C o n n o r a n d A r n o l d , for t h a t matter), p e r m i t s one to r e c k o n w i t h
four b a s i c degrees of P P . In t e r m s of stress, K i n g d o n (1958.1) s p e a k s of
u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s , p a r t i a l l y s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s a n d fully s t r e s s e d s y l ­
l a b l e s , w h i c h i n d i c a t e s three degrees of P P . In t e r m s of p i t c h , he d i s t i n ­
g u i s h e s b e t w e e n static a n d k i n e t i c tones, the former b e i n g c h a r a c t e r i z e d
b y a b s e n c e , a n d the latter b y presence, of m o v e m e n t i n p i t c h (1958.3-8).
T h i s i n d i c a t e s a n o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t difference i n P P : the static tones are
s t r i k i n g l y exceeded i n P P b y k i n e t i c tones. A s c o m b i n a t i o n s of c h a n g e s
C A N TIIE F U N C T I O N A L P E R S P E C T I V E O F A S P O K E N S E N T E N C E B E P R E D I C T E D
FR( )M T H A T O F ITS W R I T r E N C O U N T E R P A R T ?
27
i n s t r e s s a n d p i t c h are c o n s i d e r e d b y K i n g d o n to be the b a s i c e l e m e n t s
of E n g l i s h i n t o n a t i o n , a n d h i s c o n c e p t s of p r e - h e a d , h e a d , n u c l e u s a n d
tail tally w i t h those of O ' C o n n o r a n d A r n o l d , the c o m p a t i b i l i t y of the two
a p p r o a c h e s i s evident. In either case, it is p o s s i b l e to s p e a k of a g a m u t
t h a t i s c o n s t i t u t e d b y the four b a s i c degrees of P P (absence of stress,
u n a c c e n t e d stress, a c c e n t e d s t r e s s a n d n u c l e a r stress) a n d t h a t is further
e x p a n d a b l e (see p. 25).
F o r o u r p u r p o s e s , the s y s t e m s of tonetic m a r k s a p p l i e d i n O ' C o n n o r ' s
t r a n s c r i p t i o n of 1971 a n d K i n g d o n ' s of 1958 c a n be r e g a r d e d a s
c o m p a t i b l e as well. F o r the benefit of the reader w h o m a y not be f a m i l i a r
w i t h the two s y s t e m s , let m e briefly e x p l a i n the m e a n i n g s of the tonetic
m a r k s u s e d b y O ' C o n n o r a n d K i n g d o n . D e t a i l e d e x p l a n a t i o n s are to be
found i n O'Connor 1971. ix-xii a n d Kingdon 1958.1-21. M y explana­
t i o n s o n l y serve to a c c o u n t for the u s e s of the m a r k s i n the two t r a n ­
s c r i p t i o n s . B o t h t r a n s c r i p t i o n s are b r o u g h t b y C h a r t T w o of the
Appendix, a t t a c h e d i n the form of loose sheets to the p r e s e n t v o l u m e of
Bmo Studies ill English T h e reader is a d v i s e d to refer to C h a r t O n e for
e x a m p l e s w h i l e s t u d y i n g the e x p l a n a t i o n s . A s p e c i a l reference i s g i v e n
w h e n , b e c a u s e of i t s low frequency i n the t r a n s c r i p t i o n , a tonetic m a r k
m a y be difficult to find p r o m p t l y .
T h e tonetic m a r k s are either r a i s e d (placed at the top of the line) or
lowered (placed at the b o t t o m of the line). W i t h a p r o v i s o r e q u i r e d b y a
s p e c i a l case s t a t e d below, they i n d i c a t e either h i g h or l o w p i t c h , respec­
tively.
A r a i s e d v e r t i c a l s t r e s s m a r k i n d i c a t e s a c c e n t e d stress. A d o u b l e r a i s e d
vertical s t r e s s m a r k , w h i c h o c c u r s only i n K i n g d o n ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n , i n d i ­
cates a d d i t i o n a l e m p h a s i s .
In O ' C o n n o r ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n a lowered v e r t i c a l s t r e s s m a r k i n d i c a t e s
u n a c c e n t e d stress. If o c c u r r i n g after a fall-rise, it i n d i c a t e s the c o n t i n u ­
a t i o n of the rise; see, e. g., the w o r d s following the fall-rises o c c u r r i n g o n
larger, we, we a n d hallow of ( d i s t r i b u t i o n a l field) 6. In K i n g d o n ' s t r a n ­
s c r i p t i o n , it i n d i c a t e s u n a c c e n t e d s t r e s s if o c c u r r i n g i n a p r e - h e a d or a
t a i l , or w i t h i n w h a t he c a l l s ' a n e x p a n d e d n u c l e u s ' (1958.20-1) a n d
O ' C o n n o r a n d A r n o l d 'a c o m p o u n d t u n e ' (1973.33); see the s t r e s s e s o n
nation, conceived a n d so of 2, between the h i g h fall o n cuiy a n d the low
rise o n dedicated. (The h i g h fall a n d the following l o w r i s e act here as a
c o n s t i t u t i v e feature of the t o n a l configuration.) In other cases, the low­
ered v e r t i c a l m a r k i n d i c a t e s a c c e n t e d s t r e s s i n K i n g d o n ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
In O ' C o n n o r ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n , a l o w e r e d d o u b l e v e r t i c a l s t r e s s m a r k
i n d i c a t e s a c c e n t e d stress. In K i n g d o n ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n , it s i g n a l s a d d i t i o n ­
al e m p h a s i s ; see the w o r d s dedicate,
consecrate
a n d hallow of 6.
B e c a u s e of its o c c u r r e n c e i n the t a i l of a tone u n i t , the s t r e s s does not
a t t a i n the s t a t u s of g e n u i n e a c c e n t e d n e s s .
In K i n g d o n ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n , a r a i s e d dot i n d i c a t e s u n a c c e n t e d stress.
In O ' C o n n o r ' s , it i s u s e d to i n d i c a t e u n a c c e n t e d s t r e s s 'that does not
deviate from the p i t c h p r e v i o u s l y specified' ( O ' C o n n o r 1971.x).
S l a n t e d s t r e s s m a r k s i n d i c a t e n u c l e i . A s t r e s s m a r k s l a n t e d from right
28
J A N F1RBAS
to left i n d i c a t e s a rise: one s l a n t e d from left to right i n d i c a t e s a fall. A
c o m b i n a t i o n of the two i n d i c a t e s either a fall-rise or a rise-fall. K i n g d o n
u s e s d o u b l e s l a n t e d s t r e s s m a r k s to i n d i c a t e a d d i t i o n a l e m p h a s i s ; see,
e. g., did of 9.
O ' C o n n o r a n d A r n o l d differ from K i n g d o n i n the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the
s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s w i t h i n w h a t they c a l l 'a c o m p o u d tune' a n d K i n g d o n
' a n e x p a n d e d n u c l e u s ' . W h e r e a s O ' C o n n o r a n d A r n o l d interpret the
s t r e s s e s o n the w o r d s o c c u r r i n g b e t w e e n the two n u c l e u s bearers as
a c c e n t e d (1973.33), K i n g d o n regards t h e m as i n s t a n c e s of p a r t i a l stress
(1958.19), i . e. as u n a c c e n t e d . I believe t h a t i n regard to the e x p a n d e d
g a m u t of P P , the two v i e w s c a n be r e c o n c i l e d . O c c u r r i n g after the h i g h
fall, the l o w rise i n fact o c c u r s i n its p r o s o d i c s h a d e a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y
recedes i n t o the b a c k g r o u n d . S o do the s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s following the
fall a n d p r e c e d i n g the r i s e . T h i s r e d u c e s the p r o s o d i c p r o m i n e n c e b o t h
of the l o w rise a n d of the stresses. In regard to the g a m u t of rising P P ,
the low rise does not a t t a i n the full p r o s o d i c s t a t u s h e l d i n the g a m u t b y
n u c l e a r stress, n o r do the s t r e s s e s a t t a i n the full p r o s o d i c s t a t u s of
a c c e n t e d n e s s . O n the other h a n d , the low rise r e m a i n s p r o s o d i c a l l y
m o r e p r o m i n e n t t h a n a c c e n t e d s t r e s s a n d the stresses m o r e p r o m i n e n t
t h a n u n a c c e n t e d stress.
S p e c i a l m e n t i o n m u s t be m a d e of a p r o s o d i c feature that O ' C o n n o r
a n d A r n o l d refer to as ' M i d - L e v e l n u c l e a r tone' (1973.31). In contrast
w i t h a l l the other tones t h a t have so far been regarded as n u c l e a r i n the
l i t e r a t u r e , t h i s tone does n o t h a v e a movement of p i t c h , b u t a sustention
of p i t c h (ib.). It i s the s u s t e n t i o n of p i t c h t h a t gives the tone its n u c l e a r
c h a r a c t e r . A s t h i s c h a r a c t e r w a s overtly recognized b y O ' C o n n o r a n d
A r n o l d o n l y i n 1973 (1973.ix) a n d i s therefore n o t m a r k e d i n O ' C o n n o r ' s
t r a n s c r i p t i o n of 1 9 7 1 , I have i n t r o d u c e d the a p p r o p r i a t e m a r k into the
1971 t r a n s c r i p t i o n , r e p l a c i n g the o r i g i n a l s t r e s s m a r k not suggesting
the n u c l e a r c h a r a c t e r of the tone. T h e M i d - L e v e l n u c l e a r tone is borne,
for i n s t a n c e , b y forth a n d men of 1, engaged of 2 , lives of 4 a n d dead of
7 i n O ' C o n n o r ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n . In K i n g d o n ' s t e r m s , this tone does not
involve a c h a n g e i n p i t c h a n d i s therefore not k i n e t i c , b u t static. I find,
however, t h a t O ' C o n n o r a n d A r n o l d are j u s t i f i e d i n a c c o r d i n g the M i d Level tone n u c l e a r s t a t u s . A w o r d g r o u p c o n t a i n i n g it b e c o m e s a tone
u n i t , the M i d - L e v e l tone s e r v i n g as its c o n s t i t u t i v e feature.
In one c a s e , O ' C o n n o r u s e s a r a i s e d a r r o w p o i n t i n g d o w n w a r d s ; see
we of 6. It i d i c a t e s a c c e n t e d s t r e s s o p e n i n g a falling h e a d . In one case.
K i n g d o n u s e s a l o w e r e d s h o r t level m a r k ; see what of 9. It i n d i c a t e s
u n a c c e n t e d stress.
A w o r d m u s t be a d d e d o n the s t r o k e s d i v i d i n g u p the texts of the two
t r a n s c r i p t i o n s . O ' C o n n o r i n t e n d s the s t r o k e s to represent b o u n d a r i e s
r e a l i z e d i n s p e e c h e i t h e r b y a very brief p a u s e (or s i m p l y b y l e n g t h e n i n g
the p r e c e d i n g syllable), or b y a n u n m i s t a k a b l e p a u s e (cf. O ' C o n n o r
1971.ix). (He a c c o r d i n g l y u s e s a single or a d o u b l e s t r o k e i n h i s Reader
of 1971.) It i s i m p o r t a n t to note t h a t the b o u n d a r i e s i n d i c a t e d b y the
s t r o k e s i n fact o c c u r at e n d s of tone u n i t s . A s K i n g d o n does not m a r k
CAN T H E FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVE O F A SPOKEN S E N T E N C E B E PREDICTED
F R O M T H A T O F ITS W R I T T E N C O U N T E R P A R T ?
29
the b o u n d a r i e s of tone u n i t s w i t h a n y s p e c i a l s i g n s , I h a v e a d d i t i o n a l l y
done so b y i n s e r t i n g b o u n d a r y s t r o k e s i n h i s t r a n s c r i p t i o n . Not b e i n g i n
a p o s i t i o n to decide i n every case w i t h a b s o l u t e c e r t a i n t y w h e t h e r he
w o u l d i n s e r t a s h o r t or a l o n g p a u s e , I have d e c i d e d to have r e c o u r s e to
a s i m p l i f i c a t i o n . In b o t h t r a n s c r i p t i o n s , I e m p l o y o n l y single s t r o k e s . In
a d d i t i o n , no s t r o k e i s p l a c e d b y m e at the e n d of a sentence ( w h i c h
a l w a y s c o i n c i d e s w i t h the e n d of a tone unit) if the e n d of the sentence
is m a r k e d w i t h a full stop.
It s h o u l d also be m e n t i o n e d t h a t w h e r e a s K i n g d o n ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n i s
only tonetic, O ' C o n n o r ' s i s p h o n e t i c i n the full s e n s e of the w o r d , cover­
ing the p r o n u n c i a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l w o r d s as w e l l . B u t w i t h the excep­
tion of the i n d i c a t i o n s of glotLal s t o p s (see. for i n s t a n c e , the g l o t t a l stop
m a r k p r e c e d i n g our, are a n d equal of 1. a n d any of 2), I p r e s e n t o n l y
O ' C o n n o r ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n of the tonetic i m p l e m e n t a t i o n .
3 THE NON-THEME IN THE WRITTEN FORM OF THE GETTYSBURG ADDRESS
In m y a n a l y s i s I s h a l l first c o n c e n t r a t e o n the w r i t t e n text of The
Gettysburg Address (see C h a r t O n e of the Appendix] a n d t h e n p r o c e e d to
its s p o k e n i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s as reflected b y O ' C o n n o r ' s a n d K i n g d o n ' s
tonetic t r a n s c r i p t i o n s . A c o n v e n i e n t s t a r t i n g p o i n t of the d i s c u s s i o n i s
the f u n c t i o n s p e r f o r m e d by the verb i n the d e v e l o p m e n t of the c o m u n i c a t i o n . In d i s c u s s i n g t h e m I s h a l l treat the verb as r e p r e s e n t i n g two
c o m m u n i c a t i v e u n i t s , one b e i n g c o n s t i t u t e d b y its n o t i o n a l c o m p o n e n t
a n d the other by its c a l e g o r i a l exponents. T h e necessity of this d i s t i n c t i o n
h a s b e e n a c c o u n t e d for i n d e t a i l i n m y p r e s e n t a t i o n of the theory of F S P
(1992.70-3).
In regard to the subject, the n o t i o n a l c o m p o n e n t of the finite v e r b f o r m
serves one of the following two f u n c t i o n s i n the d e v e l o p m e n t of the c o m ­
m u n i c a t i o n (1992.5-6): it either p a r t i c i p a t e s i n p e r s p e c t i v i n g the field i n
w h i c h it o c c u r s t o w a r d s the subject (in w h i c h case the subject serves as
the c o m m u n i c a t i v e u n i t c a r r y i n g the h i g h e s t degree of C D ) , or a w a y
from the subject (in w h i c h c a s e the h i g h e s t degree of C D is c a r r i e d b y
a n o t h e r c o m m u n i c a t i v e u n i t t h a n the subject). A s the a n a l y s i s of the
text of T7ie Gettysburg Address w i l l s h o w , a l l the finite v e r b s o c c u r r i n g
i n it p a r t i c i p a t e i n p e r s p e c t i v i n g their fields a w a y from the subject. W i t h
a q u a l i f i c a t i o n to be stated below, this m e a n s i n t e r m s of the d y n a m i c
s e m a n t i c f u n c t i o n s (1992.66-9) t h a t the fields i m p l e m e n t the Q u a l i t y
Scale. T h e subject performs the d y n a m i c f u n c t i o n of e x p r e s s i n g the
B e a r e r of q u a l i t y (the B - f u n c t i o n ) a n d the n o t i o n a l v e r b a l c o m p o n e n t the
d y n a m i c s e m a n t i c f u n c t i o n of e x p r e s s i n g the Q u a l i t y a s c r i b e d to the
bearer (the Q-function). T h i s opens the p o s s i b i l i t y for the n o t i o n a l c o m ­
ponent of the verb to c o m p l e t e the d e v e l o p m e n t of the c o m m u n i c a t i o n
w i t h i n the field i n w h i c h it operates. It c a n do so i n the a b s e n c e of u n i t s
p e r f o r m i n g the d y n a m i c s e m a n t i c f u n c t i o n of e x p r e s s i n g a S p e c i f i c a t i o n ,
30
J A N FIRBAS
or a F u r t h e r S p e c i f i c a t i o n , of the q u a l i t y e x p r e s s e d b y the verb (the S p f u n c t i o n or the F S p - f u n c t i o n ) . T h e u n i t s the presence of w h i c h prevents
the verb from c o m p l e t i n g the d e v e l o p m e n t of the c o m m u n i c a t i o n are
l o o k e d u p o n as its s u c c e s s f u l c o m p e t i t o r s . T h e y c o n s e q u e n t l y c a r r y
h i g h e r degrees of C D . T h e a n a l y s i s a d d u c e d below d e m o n s ! r a t e s that
the n o t i o n a l c o m p o n e n t s of the n o n - f i n i t e verb also p e r f o r m the Q - f u n c t i o n In t h e i r fields i n the s h o r t text u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n . It i s from the
angle j u s t i n d i c a t e d that I s h a l l e x a m i n e the o p e r a t i o n of the n o t i o n a l
c o m p o n e n t of the verb, finite or n o n - f i n i t e .
E x a m i n i n g the w r i t t e n text, w e f i n d t h a t the b a s i c d i s t r i b u t i o n a l field 1
(or 'field 1', or T , for short) c o n t a i n s four verb forms, brought forth, con­
ceived, dedicated
a n d arc created, the first o p e r a t i n g i n the b a s i c field
a n d the o t h e r s i n s u b f i e l d s . N o n e of the n o t i o n a l c o m p o n e n t s of these
v e r b forms proves to be the u n i t t h a t c o m p l e t e s the development of the
c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h i n the respective field. It does not do so because of
the presence of a s u c c e s s f u l competitor, w h i c h exceeds it i n C D . In t h i s
w a y , brougltiforth
is exceeded i n C D b y a new nation
conceivedby
in
liberty; dedicated b y to the proposition m a t a n d are created b y equal
In e a c h case, the c o m m u n i c a t i v e u n i t e x c e e d i n g the verb form i n C D
p e r f o r m s the S p - f u n c t i o n . In the a b s e n c e of a F u r t h e r S p e c i f i c a t i o n
(FSp), t h i s S p - u n i t c o m p l e t e s the d e v e l o p m e n t of the c o m m u n i c a t i o n
w i t h i n the respective field, c o n s e q u e n t l y c a r r y i n g the h i g h e s t degree of
CD.
A s the fields e x a m i n e d i m p l e m e n t the Q u a l i t y S c a l e , the following
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n t e r m s of t h e m a t i c a n d n o n - t h e m a t i c f u n c t i o n s applies
( 1 9 9 2 . 6 7 - 8 7 ) , w i t h the q u a l i f i c a t i o n to be stated presently. If not c o m ­
p l e t i n g the d e v e l o p m e n t of the c o m m u n i c a t i o n , the n o t i o n a l v e r b a l c o m ­
p o n e n t performs the f u n c t i o n of t r a n s i t i o n (Tr) i n regard to its s u c c e s s ­
ful c o m p e t i t o r s , w h i c h are a l l r h e m a t i c (Rh). the one c o m p l e t i n g the
d e v e l o p m e n t of the c o m m u n i c a t i o n s e r v i n g as r h e m e p r o p e r (RhPr). If i n
the a b s e n c e of s u c c e s s f u l c o m p e t i t o r s it c o m p l e t e s the development of
the c o m m u n i c a t i o n , the n o t i o n a l v e r b a l c o m p o n e n t a c t s as r h e m e p r o p ­
er itself. W h i l e the n o t i o n a l v e r b a l c o m p o n e n t s h o w s a s t r o n g tendency
to be t r a n s i t i o n a l , its t e m p o r a l a n d m o d a l c o m p o n e n t s (TMEs) perform
the t r a n s i t i o n a l f u n c t i o n i n v a r i a b l y , a c t i n g as t r a n s i t i o n p r o p e r (TrPr or
'+'). U n i t s p e r f o r m i n g the t r a n s i t i o n a l a n d r h e m a t i c f u n c t i o n s are
r e g a r d e d as n o n - t h e m a t i c . A n e s s e n t i a l p r e c o n d i t i o n of their n o n - t h e m a t i c i t y i s c o n t e x t - i n d e p e n d e n c e , i . e. t h e i r e x p r e s s i n g i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t
is i r r e t r i e v a b l e f r o m the i m m e d i a t e l y r e l e v a n t p r e c e d i n g v e r b a l context
a n d / o r the i m m e d i a t e l y r e l e v a n t s i t u a t i o n a l c o n t e x t . (This does not,
h o w e v e r , m e a n t h a t every c o n t e x t - i n d e p e n d e n t u n i t is n e c e s s a r i l y n o n t h e m a t i c ; cf. 1992.71). If c o n t e x t - d e p e n d e n t , i . e. e x p r e s s i n g i n f o r m a t i o n
retrievable from the i m m e d i a t e l y relevant c o n t e x t u a l sphere characterized
(1992.23ff). a u n i t b e c o m e s p a r t of the t h e m e ; c f 1 9 9 2 . 6 6 - 8 7 a n d h e r e
p p . 4 1 - 2 . (In the p r e s e n t p a p e r , the t e r m s ' c o n t e x t d e p e n d e n c e ' a n d
' c o n t e x t i n d e p e n d e n c e ' are u s e d i n t h e n a r r o w s e n s e specified
above.)
CAN T H E FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVE O F A SPOKEN SENTENCE B E PREDICTED
F R O M T H A T O F ITS W R I T T E N C O U N T E R P A R T . '
31
T h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n to be m a d e c o n c e r n s the fact t h a t l i k e a n y other u n i t
the n o t i o n a l c o m p o n e n t of the v e r b b e c o m e s t h e m a t i c w h e n it is r e n d e r e d
context-dependent. U n l i k e the B - f u n c t i o n a n d the S e t - f u n c t i o n , w h i c h
are e x c l u s i v e l y t h e m a t i c irrespective of context d e p e n d e n c e / i n d e p e n ­
dence a n d are therefore t h e m a t i c f u n c t i o n s par excellence, the Q-fu no­
tion t e n d s to b e c o m e n e u t r a l i s e d i n the t h e m a t i c s p h e r e . T h r o u g h
b e c o m i n g context-dependent, a u n i t t h a t i f c o n t e x t - i n d e p e n e n t w o u l d
perform the Q - f u n c t i o n h a s its d y n a m i c s e m a n t i c s t a t u s w e a k e n e d a n d
i n a s e n s e r e d u c e d to t h a t of a S e t t i n g . (The d y n a m i c s e m a n t i c S e t - f u n c ­
tion c o n s i s t s i n e x p r e s s i n g c o n c o m i t a n t , b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n ;
1 9 9 2 . 4 9 - 5 9 a n d 66-9). B u t as the a n a l y s i s s h o w s , n o n e of the v e r b s i n
the text e x a m i n e d p a r t i c i p a t e s i n p e r s p e c t i v i n g i t s field to the subject; i n
fact, n o n e of the fields i m p l e m e n t s the P r e s e n t a t i o n S c a l e (1992.66-9).
See the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of field 1 b e l o w n o w . (In the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s ,
n u m e r a l s not followed b y a s t e r i s k s s t a n d for b a s i c d i s t r i b u t i o n a l fields.
Numerals wiUi asterisks indicate distributional subfields. The n u m b e r
of a s t e r i s k s i n d i c a t e s the r a n k of s u b o r d i n a t i o n . Letters a, b a n d c s i g n i ­
fy c o o r d i n a t e b a s i c d i s t r i b u t i o n a l fields o r s u b f i e l d s . In a l l the i n t e r p r e ­
tations, 1 - l l * * * d , the c o m m u n i c a t i v e u n i t s i t a l i c i z e d serve a s r h e m e
proper. S e v e n v e r b forms - dedicate of 4*, dedicate of 6 a , consecrate of
6b, haUow of 6c, consecrated of 7, dedicated of 10* a n d dedicated of 11*
- w h i c h convey context-dependent, a n d therefore t h e m a t i c , i n f o r m a ­
tion - are e n c l o s e d w i t h i n reversed v i r g u l e s , \ \ . T h e a b b r e v i a t i o n
'NegFocAnt' s t a n d s for 'negation focus a n t i c i p a t o r ' ; cf. 1 9 9 2 . T h e
N e g F o c A n t i s a n element of n e g a t i o n , for i n s t a n c e not, w h i c h i n t e r m s of
the interpretative a r r a n g e m e n t - see 1 9 9 2 . 1 2 - 3 - precedes a n d p o i n t s to
the n e g a t i o n focus, i . e. the r h e m e p r o p e r of a negative field. In t h i s
sense it is r h e m a t i c . A t the s a m e time, it o p e n s the scope of n e g a t i o n
a n d i n t h i s sense it is t r a n s i t i o n p r o p e r oriented.)
(1)
(l*a)
(l*b)
(1**)
brought forth (+; Q, Tr) ... a new nation conceived in liberty and dedicated to Hie
proposition that all men arc created equal (Sp; RliPr).
conceived (+; Q, Tr) in liberty (Sp; RhPr) ...
dedicated (+; Q. Tr) to the proposition that all men are created equal (Sp, RI\Pr).
arc (+) erealed (+: Q, Tr) equal (Sp. RhPr).
W i t h due a l t e r a t i o n s , the s a m e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a p p l i e s to the n o t i o n a l
v e r b a l c o m p o n e n t s i n 2*. 2**. 3, 4 . 8 a , 8 b , 9. 10**, 11**, l l * * * a * . l l * * * c
a n d l l * * * d ; i n each field the presence of a S p e c i f i c a t i o n p r e v e n t s the
n o t i o n a l c o m p o n e n t from c o m p l e t i n g the d e v e l o p m e n t of the c o m m u n i ­
c a t i o n . (Detailed i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of the n o n - t h e m e s of i n d i v i d u a l fields
are a d d u c e d below.) N e i t h e r c a n the n o t i o n a l v e r b a l c o m p o n e n t c o m ­
plete the d e v e l o p m e n t of the c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n 5, 2, 4**, 10, 1 1 , l l * * * a
a n d l l * * * b . In 5 it i s a u n i t p e r f o r m i n g the Q - f u n c t i o n t h a t a c t s as its
successful competitor; this i s because is serves a s a c o p u l a a n d its n o t i o n ­
al c o m p o n e n t m e r e l y p e r f o r m s the A(scription)ofQ(uality) (1992.68). In
2, 4**, 10, l l * * * a , a n d l l * * * b , the n o t i o n a l c o m p o n e n t of the verb i s
exceeded i n C D b y a S p e c i f i c a t i o n a n d a F u r t h e r S p e c i f i c a t i o n ; i n e a c h
32
J A N FIRBAS
c a s e t h e S p e c i f i c a t i o n o c c u r r i n g l a s t i n t h e field proves to b e t h e m o s t
s u c c e s s f u l c o m p e t i t o r o f t h e n o t i o n a l c o m p o n e n t of t h e v e r b ( 1 9 9 2 . 8 1 3).
In 4*. 7, 10* a n d 11*, t h e n o t i o n a l c o m p o n e n t of t h e v e r b c a n n o t c o m ­
plete t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of the c o m m u n i c a t i o n , b e c a u s e i t i s c o n t e x t d e p e n d e n t . H e n c e i t i s t h e m a t i c (see 1 9 9 2 . 7 1 a n d here p p . 41-2) a n d
e x c e e d e d i n C D even b y the T M E s . T h e latter, however, c a n n o t c o m p l e t e
the d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f a S p e c i f i c a t i o n
i n 7, 10* a n d 11*, a n d of a S p e c i f i c a t i o n , F u r t h e r S p e c i f i c a t i o n 1 a n d
F u r t h e r S p e c i f i c a t i o n 2 i n 4*.
O u t of t h e 3 7 verb forms u n d e r e x a m i n a t i o n , there are n i n e t h a t i n the
a b s e n c e of s u c c e s s f u l c o m p e t i t o r s c o m p l e t e the d e v e l o p m e n t of the c o m ­
m u n i c a t i o n . S i x v e r b forms, o c c u r r i n g i n 4***. 5*, 7*. 8*. 9* a n d 10***,
do so t h r o u g h the n o t i o n a l c o m p o n e n t , a n d three, o c c u r r i n g i n 6 a , 6 b ,
a n d 6 c , t h r o u g h the T M E s . U n d e r the c i r c u m s t a n c e s , the T M E s c a n
c o m p l e t e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n , for o w i n g to the c o n t e x t
d e p e n d e n c e of t h e n o t i o n a l c o m p o n e n t of the v e r b they h a v e b e c o m e
competitorless.
(2)
(2*)
(2")
(3)
(4)
(4*)
(4**)
(5)
(5*)
(Ga)
(Gb)
(6c)
(7)
(7*)
(8a)
(8h)
(8*)
(9)
(9*)
(10)
(10*)
(10")
(10***)
are (+) engaged (+; Q, Tr) in a civil war (Sp, Rli) testing whether that nation or
any nation so conceived and so dedicated can long endure (FSp. Rhrr).
testing (+; Q, Tr) wficthcr that nation or any nation so conceived and so dedicat­
ed can long endure (Sp, HliPr).
can (+) long (Sp, RliPr) endure (+: Q. Tr).
are (+) met (+; Q. Tr) on a great battlefield of thai war (Sp. RliPr).
have (+) come (+; Q. Tr) to dedicate a portion of that .field as a final resting place
for those who licre gave their lives Uiat that nation might live
to (+) Sdedlcale +; Set, Tl\)\ a portion of thai field (Sp, Rl\) as a final resting
place (FSpl, Rl\) for those who here gave Oxeir lives that that nation might live
(FSp2. Rhl'r).
gave (+; y. Tr) Iheir lives (Sp. Rli) that that nation might live (FSp. RliPr).
is (+; Aoi'Q. Tr) altogetlierfating and proper {(J. Rhl'r) ...
should (+) do(Q. RhPr)...
can (+; Q. RliPr) not (NegFocAnt, Rli) Sdedicate (+; Set. Th)\...
can (+; Q. RliPr) not (NegFocAnt, Rh) Sconsccrate (+; Set. Th)\...
can (+: Q, RhPr) not (NegFocAnt. RII) Shallow (+; Set, Th)S...
have (+) Sconsecrated (+; Set, Th)S... far above our power to add or detract (Sp.
RhPr).
struggled (Q. RhPr)...
little (Sp. RhPr) note (+; Q. Tr) ... (See p. 34.)
long (Sp. RhPr) rcnicnilx-.r (+. Q, Tr) ... (See lb.)
say (+; Q, RhPr)...
can (+) never (NegFocAnt) forget (+; Q. Tr) u)hat they did here (Sp, RhPr).
did (+; Q, RhPr)...
is (+; Q. Tr) for us the living (Sp, Rh) rather to be dedicated )\crc to Oie unfinish­
ed work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced (FSp,
RhPr).
to be (+) Sdedicated (+: Set, Th)S ... to (he unfinished work which they who
fought here have thus far so nobly advanced (Sp. RhPr).
have (+) ... so nobly (Sp, RhPr) advanced (+; Q. Tr). (See lb.)
fought (+: Q. RhPr) ...
(
<;AN T I I E F I : N C T I < >NAL P E R S P E C T I V E O F A SP< > K E N S E N T E N C E
B E PREDICTED
33
F R O M T I I A T O F ITSW R I T T E N C( H J N T E R P A R T ?
(11)
(11*)
(11**)
(ll***a)
(1 l***a*)
(11***1))
(11***1>*)
(1 l*'*e)
(11**M)
is (+: Q. Tr) rather for us (Sp. Rli) [THE ENTIRE REST OF THE BASIC DISTRIBU­
TIONAL FIELD\ (FSp. RhPr).
lo be (+) ... \dedicalcd ( + ; Set. Th)\ to the great task remaining fx/ore us (Sp.
Rhl'r)
remaining (+; Q. Tr) before us (Sp. RhPr) ...
take (+; Q. Tr) increased devotion (Sp, Rli) to Oiat cause for which theii gave
the laslfull measure of devotion (FSp, KliPr).
... gave (+; g. Tr) the last full measure of devotion (Sp, RhPr).
highly (Sp. 1th) resolve (+; Q, Tr) that these dead shall not have died in vain
(FSp. RhPr).
shall (+) not (NegFocAnl) have (+) died (+: Q. Tr) in vain (Sp. RliPr) ...
shall (+) have (+: Q. Tr) a new birth of freedom (Sp, RliPr) ...
shall (+) not (NegFocAnl) perish (+; Q. Tr)/rom live earth (Sp, RhPr).
T h e foregoing a n a l y s i s h a s d e t e r m i n e d the F S P f u n c t i o n s of the verbs
a n d i t s s u c c e s s f u l c o m p e t i t o r s . W i t h the e x c e p t i o n of seven contextdependent, a n d h e n c e t h e m a t i c , n o t i o n a l c o m p o n e n t s of the verb forms
(4*. 6 a , 6 b , 6 c , 7, 10** a n d 11*), a l l the n o t i o n a l v e r b a l c o m p o n e n t s , a l l
the T M E s a n d a l l t h e s u c c e s s f u l c o m p e t i t o r s are n o n - t h e m a t i c . Together
w i t h the t r a n s i t i o n p r o p e r o r i e n t e d u n i t s r e c o r d e d o n C h a r t s O ' C o n n o r
2 / 1 a n d 2 / 2 a n d K i n g d o n 2 / 1 a n d 2 / 2 . Uiey a l l constitute the n o n - t h e m e s
of the fields u n d e r e x a m i n a t i o n . W i t h i n the n o n - t h e m e , t h e lowest
degree of C D i s c a r r i e d by I he T M E s : they are exceeded i n C D b y u n i t s
p e r f o r m i n g the d y n a m i c s e m a n t i c f u n c t i o n s of A o f Q , Q , S p , F S p l a n d
F S p 2 , t h i s a r r a n g e m e n t reflecting a g r a d u a l rise i n C D .
4 THE PROSODIC IMPLEMENTATION OF THE NON-THEME IN O'CONNOR'S
TONETIC TRANSCRIPTION
It is n o w p o s s i b l e to t u r n a t t e n t i o n to the r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e
d i s t r i b u t i o n of degrees of C D over the n o n - t h e m a t i c u n i t s a s d e t e r m i n e d
b y the i n t e r p l a y of the n o n - p r o s o d i c F S P factors o n the o n e h a n d a n d
the d i s t r i b u t i o n of degrees of P P o n the other. F i r s t , I s h a l l e x a m i n e the
tonetic t r a n s c r i p t i o n offered b y J . D . O ' C o n n o r from t h i s p o i n t of view.
C h a r t s O ' C o n n o r 1/1 a n d 1/2 a c c o m p a n y i n g m y e x a m i n a t i o n are to be
f o u n d i n the Appendix.
(The c o m m u n i c a t i v e u n i t s s e r v i n g a s r h e m e s
p r o p e r a r e n o t italicized o n t h e m , b u t u n d e r l i n e d . T h e t h e m a t i c u n i t s
are p l a c e d w i t h i n reversed v i r g u l e s , \ \ . F o r the u s e of o r d i n a r y v i r g u l e s , / / , a n d the s i g n >, see p . 36.)
A n e x a m i n a t i o n of field 1 s h o w s that the verb f o r m s o c c u r r i n g i n it,
brought forth, conceived, dedicated a n d are created, are a l l exceeded i n
PP b y t h e i r s u c c e s s f u l c o m p e t i t o r s . T r u e e n o u g h , t h e verb form brought
fortli b e a r s a n u c l e u s , b u t i t s s u c c e s s f u l c o m p e t i t o r , a n e x p a n d e d object
s e r v i n g a s a S p e c i f i c a t i o n , b e a r s a n u m b e r of n u c l e i , w h i c h a l l s h o w
h i g h e r degrees of P P o n a c c o u n t of t h e i r o c c u r r i n g later i n the field. In
a n y case, the decisive role i s p l a y e d b y the n u c l e u s o n equal, t h e repre­
sentative p r o s o d i c feature of t h e S p e c i f i c a t i o n . A s for t h e three verb
34
J A N FIRBAS
f o r m s o p e r a t i n g i n s u b f i e l d s , conceived (l*a), dedicated
(l*b) a n d are
created (1**). e a c h b e a r s a c c e n t e d stress, w h i c h is exceeded i n P P b y a
n u c l e u s (on liberty, equal a n d equal respectively) a c t i n g as the repre­
sentative p r o s o d i c feature of a c o n c u r r i n g S p e c i f i c a t i o n . (The a c c e n t e d
s t r e s s of the verb f o r m dedicated
of l * b i s i n fact exceeded i n P P b y
three nuclei.) It is not w i t h o u t interest to note t h a t the n e t w o r k of fields
p e r m i t s the n u c l e u s o n equal s i m u l t a n e o u s l y to serve as representative
feature i n three fields - 1**, l * b a n d 1.
In r e g a r d to the s e c t i o n of field 1 d i s c u s s e d above (p. 31), the foregoing
c o m m e n t s h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d a perfect c o r r e s p o n d e n c e between the d i s t r i ­
b u t i o n of degrees of C D a s d e t e r m i n e d b y the i n t e r p l a y of the n o n - p r o s o d ic F S P factors a n d the d i s t r i b u t i o n of degrees of P P . (Henceforth I s h a l l
u s e the t e r m 'perfect d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e ' for short.) T h i s is
i n d i c a t e d o n the C h a r t s b y the a b b r e v i a t i o n ' P E R F . C O R R . ' It m u s t be
e m p h a s i z e d t h a t the a s s e s s m e n t of perfect d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e
a p p l i e s h e r e to the v e r b , o c c u r r i n g i n finite or non-finite form a n d c o n ­
s t i t u t i n g two c o m m u n i c a t i v e u n i t s , a n d its s u c c e s s f u l c o m p e t i t o r s .
W i t h d u e a l t e r a t i o n s the s a m e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a p p l i e s to 21 other fields
of the text. T h e y are a l l r e p r e s e n t e d i n the C h a r t s merely b y a verb form
t h a t i s not u n d e r l i n e d ; see fields 2 . 2*. 3, 4, 4*. 4**. 5. 7, 7*. 9. 10, 10*.
11, 11*, 1 1 " , l l * * * a , l l * * * a * . l l * * * b , l l * * * b * . l l * * * c , 1 l***d. Together
w i t h the four fields c o m m e n t e d o n i n the p r e c e d i n g p a r a g r a p h , a l l the
21 fields d i s p l a y perfect d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i n the sense s p e c i ­
fied above, i . e. i n r e g a r d to the verb a n d its s u c c e s s f u l c o m p e t i t o r s .
In a l l the 2 5 fields (4 + 21), the T M E s act as t r a n s i t i o n proper. W i t h
four e x c e p t i o n s i n w h i c h it i s t h e m a t i c (4*. 7, 10* a n d 11*), the n o t i o n a l
v e r b a l c o m p o n e n t i s a l w a y s t r a n s i t i o n a l . It is exceeded i n P P by its
s u c c e s s f u l c o m p e t i t o r s , w h i c h are r h e m a t i c , the one c o m p l e t i n g the
d e v e l o p m e n t of the c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h i n the field s e r v i n g as r h e m e
p r o p e r a n d b e a r i n g the m o s t p r o m i n e n t p r o s o d i c feature. T h i s testifies
to a perfect d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i n the r h e m e as well a s i n
r e g a r d to the t r a n s i t i o n - r h e i n e r e l a t i o n s h i p .
In a d d i t i o n to the 2 5 fields j u s t d i s c u s s e d , there are a n o t h e r 8 fields
i n t e r p r e t e d as d i s p l a y i n g perfect d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i n regard
to the t r a n s i t i o n - r h e m e r e l a t i o n s h i p ; see 2**, 4***, 5*, 8 a , 8 b , 9*. 10**
a n d 10***. In e a c h case it is the n o t i o n a l v e r b a l c o m p o n e n n t t h a t b e a r s
the m o s t p r o m i n e n t p r o s o d i c feature (a n u c l e u s ) . A s to the n o t i o n a l ver­
b a l c o m p o n e n t s of 4***, 5*, 9* a n d 10* [live, do, did a n d fought), the
i s s u e i s q u i t e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . In the a b s e n c e of a s u c c e s s f u l c o m p e t i t o r ,
e a c h c o m p l e t e s the d e v e l o p m e n t of the c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h i n its field
a n d serves a s r h e m e p r o p e r a n d is u n d e r l i n e d o n the C h a r t .
T h e n o t i o n a l v e r b a l c o m p o n e n t s of 2**, 8 a , 8 b a n d 10*** [endure, note,
remember a n d advanced)
require special comment. E a c h is a nucleus
b e a r e r i n spite of the p r e s e n c e of a n a d v e r b i a l [long, little, long a n d
nobly) that f u n c t i o n s a s a s p e c i f i c a t i o n a n d proves to be a s u c c e s s f u l
c o m p e t i t o r . It i s i m p o r t a n t to note that b o t h the adverb, w h i c h i m m e d i ­
ately p r e c e d e s the n o t i o n a l v e r b a l c o m p o n e n t , a n d the n o t i o n a l c o m p o -
CAN T H E FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVE O F A SPOKEN S E N T E N C E B E PREDICTED
F R O M T H A T O F ITS W R I T T E N C( H I N T E R P A R T ?
35
nent are c o n t e x t - i n d e p e n d e n t . T h e y f o r m a c o m b i n a t i o n t h a t i s r e m i n i s ­
cent of a n o u n p h r a s e i m p l e m e n t e d t h r o u g h a c o n t e x t - i n d e p e n d e n t
attributive adjective i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g a c o n t e x t - i n d e p e n d e n t h e a d ­
w o r d b e a r i n g a n u c l e u s ; cf., e. g., a thrilling story i n I've read a thrilling
story, o c c u r r i n g i n a context w h i c h o n l y r e n d e r s the p r o n o u n J contextdependent. A l t h o u g h u n d e r the c o n t e x t u a l c o n d i t i o n s s t i p u l a t e d the
adjective exceeds the h e a d w o r d i n C D w i t h i n the n o u n p h r a s e a c t i n g as
a subfield. it does not bear the n u c l e u s . It is w o r t h n o t i c i n g that t h o u g h
deviating from perfect d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e the p l a c e m e n t of
the n u c l e u s does not affect the perspective of the n o u n p h r a s e . It does
not p r o d u c e a r e - e v a l u a t i n g effect (see 1 9 9 2 . 1 5 9 - 7 2 a n d below), re-perspectiving the n o u n p h r a s e to story. T h i s is b e c a u s e the p l a c e m e n t of the
n u c l e u s o n the context-independent h e a d w o r d folloving a context-inde­
p e n d e n t attributive adjective proves to be quite u n m a r k e d . In other
words, it is the u n m a r k e d c h a r a c t e r of the p l a c e m e n t t h a t prevents it
from p r o d u c i n g a r e - e v a l u a t i n g effect w i t h i n the subfield; i n spite of the
n u c l e u s o c c u r r i n g o n the h e a d w o r d , the n o u n p h r a s e i s p e r s p e c t i v e d to
the attributive adjective, llvilling. A s for the F S P f u n c t i o n of the n u c l e u s
on story, it serves as the representative feature of the s u b f i e l d p r o v i d e d
by the n o u n p h r a s e , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y m a r k i n g it as the r h e m e p r o p e r of
the sentence. (For a m o r e detailed d i s c u s s s i o n of the f u n c t i o n s of the
prosodic features of the adjective-headword c o m b i n a t i o n , see 1 9 9 2 . 1 6 7 9.)
A s to the c o m b i n a t i o n i m p l e m e n t e d t h r o u g h a c o n t e x t - i n d e p e n d e n t
(one-word) adverb i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g a c o n t e x t - i n d e p e n d e n t n o t i o n ­
al v e r b a l c o m p o n e n t , it does not d i s p l a y s u c h close r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
its two p a r t s as the adjective-headword c o m b i n a t i o n does. U n l i k e t h i s
c o m b i n a t i o n , it does not serve a s one s y n t a c t i c c o n s t i t u e n t ; e a c h of its
p a r t s a c t s as a s y n t a c t i c c o n s t i t u e n t i n its o w n r i g h t . T h i s looser
r e l a t i o n s h i p is also b o r n e out b y the a b s e n c e of c o n s t a n t w o r d order
c o n t i g u i t y of the two p a r t s . Nevertheless, i n the text u n d e r e x a m i n a t i o n ,
the c o n t e x t - i n d e p e n d e n t adverb i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g the contextindependent notional verbal component bears a striking similarity i n
function to the a t t r i b u t i v e adjective o p e r a t i n g u n d e r the s a m e c o n t e x t u ­
al c o n d i t i o n s i n the adjective-headword c o m b i n a t i o n . A t this p o i n t , it is
w o r t h r e c a l l i n g K o p e c n y ' s o b s e r v a t i o n o n the q u a l i f y i n g d e t e r m i n a t i o n of
the verb c a r r i e d out b y the adverb. H e c h a r a c t e r i z e s the adverb p e r f o r m ­
i n g this f u n c t i o n as a v e r b a l a t t r i b u t e ( K o p e c n y 1962.25). F r o m t h i s
p o i n t of view, the following c a n be s a i d a b o u t e a c h of the a d v e r b s
e x a m i n e d . T h o u g h r e m a i n i n g a separate s y n t a c t i c c o n s t i t u e n t , the c o n ­
text-independent adverb i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g the c o n t e x t - i n d e p e n d e n t
n o t i o n a l v e r b a l c o m p o n e n t enters into a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h it close
e n o u g h to p r o d u c e a g r o u p t h a t c o m e s very n e a r to a n F S P c o m m u n i c a ­
tive u n i t . Moreover, the p l a c e m e n t of the n u c l e u s o n the n o t i o n a l v e r b a l
c o m p o n e n t , w h i c h c a r r i e s a lower degree of C D t h a n the adverb, proves
to be as u n m a r k e d as the p l a c e m e n t of the n u c l e u s o n the h e a d w o r d
exceeded i n C D b y the a t t r i b u t i v e adjective. U n d e r these c i r c u m s t a n c e s
36
.IAN F1UBAS
Lhe i n t e r p r e t e r c a n regard the n u c l e u s p l a c e d o n the n o t i o n a l v e r b a l
c o m p o n e n t as the representative feature of the entire c o m b i n a t i o n . A s ,
i n e a c h of the four c a s e s e x a m i n e d , the c o m b i n a t i o n is the c a r r i e r of the
h i g h e s t degrees of C D , the interpreter c a n c o n s i d e r the n u c l e u s to m a r k
the c o m b i n a t i o n as r h e m e p r o p e r of the field. I a s s u m e t h a t the a r g u ­
m e n t s a d d u c e d p e r m i t the c o n c l u s i o n that the p l a c e m e n t of the n u c l e u s
is n o t at v a r i a n c e w i t h perfect d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e . T h e four
c o m b i n a t i o n s are u n d e r l i n e d on the C h a r t .
In a d d i t i o n to 3 3 fields a c c o m p a n i e d by the l a b e l T E R F . C O R R . ' , there
are four fields (6a, 6 b , 6 c a n d 8*) that have been given l h e label 'R. INT.'
( s t a n d i n g for ' r e - e v a l u a t i n g intensification'). W h y i s Lhat so? In 6 a , 6b
a n d 6c, it is i n e a c h c a s e the a u x i l i a r y can t h a t i n the absence of
s u c c e s s f u l c o m p e t i t o r s serves as r h e m e proper. T h e n o t i o n a l v e r b a l
c o m p o n e n t (dedicate, consecrate or liallow) c a n n o t act as a s u c c e s s f u l
c o m p e t i t o r b e c a u s e it c o n v e y s retrievable a n d hence context-dependent
i n f o r m a t i o n . (In the C h a r t s , c o n t e x t - d e p e n d e n t elements are p l a c e d be­
tween a p a i r of reversed v i r g u l e s , \ \ . ) Perfect d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n ­
dence between the two d i s t r i b u t i o n s w o u l d therefore place the n u c l e u s
o n can a n d t h i s is w h e r e the n u c l e u s a c t u a l l y o c c u r s i n K i n g d o n ' s t r a n ­
s c r i p t i o n (see C h a r t K i n g d o n 1/1). B u t i n O ' C o n n o r ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n the
n u c l e i are p l a c e d o n we, we a n d hallow i n 6 a , 6 b a n d 6c, respectively,
w h i c h p r o d u c e s a s t r i k i n g d e v i a t i o n from perfect d i s t r i b u t i o n a l corre­
s p o n d e n c e . T h e n u c l e i o c c u r o n elements that the i n t e r p l a y of the n o n p r o s o d i c F S P factors r e n d e r s n o n - r h e m a l i c (thematic or transitional).
T h i s d e v i a t i o n is f u n c t i o n a l , b e c a u s e it achieves a p a r t i c u l a r effect.
T h r o u g h it s p e c i a l e m p h a s i s is t h r o w n o n the i d e a t h a t it is not the par­
t i c i p a n t s i n the c e r e m o n y w h o are the c o n s e c r a t o r s of the r e s t i n g place
of the b r a v e d e a d .
Let m e r e c a l l t h a t the p l a c e m e n t of the m o s t p r o m i n e n t p r o s o d i c fea­
t u r e of the field, i . e. its i n t o n a t i o n centre, o n a n element t h a t h a s been
r e n d e r e d n o n - r h e m a t i c (thematic or transitional) by the i n t e r p l a y of the
n o n - p r o s o d i c factors affects the t h e m e - r h e m e r e l a t i o n s h i p a n d p r o d u c e s
r e - e v a l u a t i n g p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n (1992.159-72). T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of
degrees of C D a s d e t e r m i n e d b y the n o n - p r o s o d i c F S P factors i s not
obliterated thereby, b u t a n e w d i m e n s i o n is a d d e d to the message b y
i n t o n a t i o n . T h e n o n - r h e m a t i c element i s re-evaluated a n d becomes
r h e m e proper, the elements following it a s s u m i n g a t h e m a t i c c h a r a c t e r .
E x e m p t e d from r e - e v a l u a t i o n , however, are (i) the T M E s , w h i c h c o n t i n u e
to serve as t r a n s i t i o n p r o p e r irrespective of s e n t e n c e p o s i t i o n , a n d (ii)
the c o m m u n i c a t i v e u n i t s p r e c e d i n g the IC bearer. Needless to say, the
n e w d i m e n s i o n c a n be a p p r e c i a t e d o n l y a g a i n s t the b a c k g r o u n d of per­
fect d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e . T h e fields 6 a , 6 b a n d 6c i n K i n g d o n ' s
t r a n s c r i p t i o n h a v e not u n d e r g o n e r e - e v a l u a t i o n a n d hence do not c o n ­
vey the a d d i t i o n a l s p e c i a l e m p h a s i s c r e a t e d b y it. (On C h a r t s O ' C o n n o r
1/1 a n d 1/2 a n d K i n g d o n 1/1 a n d 1/2, the u n i t s affected b y re-evalua­
t i o n are followed b y the r e - e v a l u a t i o n s i g n , >, a n d e n c l o s e d w i t h i n o r d i ­
n a r y o r reversed v i r g u l e s , / / o r \ \ . T h e y are restated o u t s i d e the v i r -
C A N T l I E F I INI :TI< ) N A L P E R S P E C T I V E O F A SP< ) K E N S E N T E N C E
DE
PREDICTED
37
FR< )M T I I A T O F I T S W R I T T E N C< )IJ N T E R P A R T ?
g u l e s a n d p r o v i d e d w i t h the tonetic m a r k s reflecting the o u t c o m e of the
r e - e v a l u a t i o n . O n the C h a r t s i n d i c a t e d , the reversed v i r g u l e s enclose
originally t h e m a t i c units.)
T h o u g h r e f r a i n i n g from a n a l y s i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n a l fields p r o v i d e d b y
n o u n p h r a s e s . I s h o u l d like to i n s e r t the following o b s e r v a t i o n at t h i s
point. B o t h i n O ' C o n n o r ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n a n d i n K i n g d o n ' s , the p o s s e s s i v e
p r o n o u n o u r i n the e x p a n d e d n o u n p h r a s e O u r poor power to add or to
detract of 7 b e a r s the n u c l e u s , a l t h o u g h it is r e n d e r e d t h e m a t i c b y the
interplay of the n o n - p r o s o d i c F S P factors. Its p r o s o d i c r e - e v a l u a t i o n
forcefully u n d e r l i n e s the i d e a of the p a r t i c i p a n t s not b e i n g the c o n s e c r a tors of the final r e s t i n g place.
A s to field 8*, it s h o w s r e - e v a l u a t i n g p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n , b e c a u s e
its i n t o n a t i o n centre falls o n here. T h i s a d v e r b i a l of p l a c e o c c u r s eight
times i n the text; see fields 4**. 7*, 8*. 9*. 10*, 10***, 11* a n d l l * * * b . In
all these cases, it is context-dependent, c o n v e y i n g i n f o r m a t i o n retriev­
able from the i m m e d i a t e l y relevant context, v e r b a l a n d s i t u a t i o n a l . It
performs the d y n a m i c s e m a n t i c f u n c t i o n of e x p r e s s i n g a S e t t i n g (cf. p .
31) a n d i s therefore t h e m a t i c a n d c a n be expected to be p r o s o d i c a l l y less
p r o m i n e n t t h a n a n y r h e m a t i c u n i t i n the field. W i t h the e x c e p t i o n of
here of 8*, t h i s i n d e e d a p p l i e s to a l l the other u s e s of here i n the text.
T h e p r o s o d i c r e - e v a l u a t i o n of here i n 8* i s i n h a r m o n y w i t h those of we
i n 6 a a n d we i n 6 b (see also C h a r t O ' C o n n o r 2 / 2 ) . In t h i s w a y , e m p h a ­
sis is p l a c e d o n the n o t i o n s of 'we the p a r t i c i p a n t s ' a n d '(standing) here
i n this very place'. T h i s a p p e a r s to be i n h a r m o n y w i t h a n o t h e r interest­
ing fact. C o m p a r i n g the fields c o n t a i n i n g the a d v e r b i a l here, we find t h a t
the items of here are g i v e n greater p r o s o d i c p r o m i n e n c e In the fields
c o n c e r n i n g the p a r t i c i p a n t s i n the c e r e m o n i a l act t h a n i n the fields c o n ­
c e r n i n g the brave dead. W h e r e a s i n the latter g r o u p , here b e a r s a c c e n ­
ted s t r e s s i n 4**, a c c e n t e d s t r e s s i n 7*, u n a c c e n t e d s t r e s s i n 9* a n d
u n a c c e n t e d s t r e s s i n 10*** (note the a b s e n c e of n u c l e a r stress), i n the
former it b e a r s n u c l e a r s t r e s s i n 8*, n u c l e a r s t r e s s i n 10*, a c c e n t e d
stress i n 11* a n d n u c l e a r s t r e s s i n l l * * * b (note the p r e s e n c e of three
o c c u r r e n c e s of n u c l e a r stress, i n one case even l e a d i n g to r e - e v a l u a t i o n ,
a n d absence of u n a c c e n t e d stress). I do not t h i n k t h a t t h i s difference i n
prosodic i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of here s h o w n b y the two g r o u p s i s p u r e l y c o i n ­
c i d e n t a l . It a p p e a r s t h a t i n O ' C o n n o r ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n , the s p e a k e r w i s h e s
to h e i g h t e n h i s a p p e a l to those present at the c e r e m o n i a l act a n d to
u n d e r d e r l i n e the hie et nunc c h a r a c t e r of h i s references to the p l a c e
where the act is i n progress. O n the other h a n d , h i s references p r e d o m i ­
n a n t l y l i n k i n g the place w i t h the m e m o r y of the b r a v e d e a d do not l e n d
s u c h a degree of e m p h a s i s to the nunc c o m p o n e n t . O n e c o u l d p e r h a p s
even s a y that i n t h i s way the references to the p l a c e w h e r e the
c o m m e m o r a t i v e s p e e c h is delivered are g i v e n different p r o s o d i c treat­
m e n t a c c o r d i n g to w h e t h e r the place is referred to as the scene of the
c o m m e m o r a t i v e act n o w i n progress or as the s c e n e of the b r a v e r y per­
formed i n the past. In a n y case, the d e v i a t i o n from perfect d i s t r i b u t i o n a l
correspondent e r e s u l t i n g i n the r e - c v a l u a t i n g p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of
38
JAN
FIRBAS
here i n 8* l a y s m a r k e d s t r e s s o n t h i s a d v e r b i a l of place. It m u s t , h o w ­
ever, be b o r n e i n m i n d t h a t the r e - e v a l u a t i n g p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n
does not affect the t h e m a t i c s t a t u s of the s u b f i e l d i n regard to the entire
(basic) d i s t r i b u t i o n a l field 8, the perspective of w h i c h h a s not been
r e - e v a l u a t e d . F i e l d 8 i s p e r s p e c t i v e d to the c o m m u n i c a t i v e u n i t (nor)
long remember, w h i c h b e a r s a falling n u c l e u s . (Moreover, the a d v e r b i a l
here of 8* b e a r s a low rise. So do the other n u c l e u s b e a r i n g items of
here, w h i c h do n o t p r o d u c e a r e - e v a l u a t i n g effect.)
A s c a n be seen from C h a r t s O ' C o n n o r 1/1 a n d 1/2, the t r a n s c r i p t i o n
e x a m i n e d s h o w s a h i g h degree of perfect d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e
i n regard to the v e r b , finite or n o n - f i n i t e (in e a c h case viewed as two
c o m m u n i c a t i v e units) a n d its s u c c e s s f u l c o m p e t i t o r s . S u c h perfect cor­
r e s p o n d e n c e is d i s p l a y e d b y 3 3 fields out of 3 7 . T h i s testifies to a h i g h
degree of perfect d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i n the r h e m e as w e l l as
i n r e g a r d to the t r a n s i t i o n - r h e m e r e l a t i o n s h i p . D e v i a t i o n s from t h i s per­
fect c o r r e s p o n d e n c e c a u s e d by r e - e v a l u a t i n g p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n
prove to be f u n c t i o n a l , a d d i n g a s p e c i a l emotive d i m e n s i o n to the m e s ­
sage c o n v e y e d .
5 THE NON-THEME IN KINGDON'S TONETIC TRANSCRIPTION
T h e r e are also 2 5 fields i n K i n g d o n ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n i n w h i c h the verb,
finite or n o n - f i n i t e , does not c o m p l e t e the development of the c o m m u n i ­
c a t i o n b e c a u s e it is prevented from d o i n g so b y a s u c c e s s f u l competitor
or s u c c e s s f u l c o m p e t i t o r s . I n these c a s e s the verb is not u n d e r l i n e d o n
the C h a r t s ( K i n g d o n 1/1 a n d 1/2). W i t h two exceptions (4*. 7, 10* a n d
11*), w h e n it i s t h e m a t i c , the n o t i o n a l v e r b a l c o m p o n e n t is a l w a y s t r a n ­
s i t i o n a l , a n d the s u c c e s s f u l c o m p e t i t o r s are a l w a y s r h e m a t i c , the one
c o m p l e t i n g the d e v e l o p m e n t of the c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h i n the field serv­
i n g a s r h e m e proper. A s for P P , the t r a n s i t i o n a l n o t i o n a l v e r b a l c o m p o ­
n e n t is exceeded i n P P b y its r h e m a t i c s u c c e s s f u l c o m p e t i t o r s . W i t h i n
the r h e m e , the r h e m a t i c u n i t s not c o m p l e t i n g the development of the
c o m m u n i c a t i o n are exceeded i n P P b y the u n i t s e r v i n g as r h e m e proper.
In other w o r d s , w i t h i n the r h e m e P P reflects the degrees of C D as deter­
m i n e d b y the i n t e r p l a y of the n o n - p r o s o d i c F S P factors. A l l the t r a n s i ­
t i o n a l u n i t s are exceeded i n P P b y the r h e m a t i c u n i t s . (This a p p l i e s also
to the t r a n s i t i o n a l u n i t s not covered b y C h a r t K i n g d o n 1/1, b u t record­
ed o n C h a r t K i n g d o n 2 / 1 a n d to be d i s c u s s e d later.) It follows that a l l
the 2 5 fields c o n c e r n e d s h o w perfect d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i n
the r h e m e . T h e y also s h o w perfect d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i n
r e g a r d to the t r a n s i t i o n - r h e m e r e l a t i o n .
Perfect d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e is also s h o w n b y 5 fields (4***,
7*, 8*, 9* a n d 10***) i n w h i c h the a b s e n c e of s u c c e s s f u l c o m p e t i t o r s per­
m i t s the n o t i o n a l v e r b a l c o m p o n e n t to c o m p l e t e the development of the
c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d to act as r h e m e proper. A l l these c o m p o n e n t s are
u n d e r l i n e d o n the C h a r t .
C:AN T H E F U N C T I O N A L P E R S P E C T I V E O F A S P O K E N S E N T E N C E B E P R E D I C T E D
F R O M T H A T O F ITS W R I T T E N C O U N T E R P A R T ?
39
Perfect d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i s further s h o w n b y 3 fields (6a.
6b a n d 6c) i n e a c h of w h i c h cannot operates a s r h e m e p r o p e r i n the
absence of s u c c e s s f u l c o m p e t i t o r s a n d i s therefore u n d e r l i n e d o n the
C h a r t . T h e n o t i o n a l v e r b a l c o m p o n e n t is o u t of c o m p e t i t i o n b e c a u s e it
has been rendered context-dependent.
In 2**, as w e l l a s i n 10**, w e f i n d a g r o u p m a d e u p b y a c o n t e x t - i n d e ­
p e n d e n t adverb a n d a c o n t e x t - i n d e p e n d e n t n o t i o n a l v e r b a l c o m p o n e n t
(long endure a n d nobly advanced,
respectively) w h i c h b e a r s a n u c l e u s .
T h e g r o u p h a s no s u c c e s s f u l c o m p e t i t o r a n d i n t e r m s of the a r g u m e n t s
offered above serves a s r h e m e proper. T h e g r o u p s are u n d e r l i n e d o n the
C h a r t . It follows from the a r g u m e n t s offered t h a t the n o n - t h e m a t i c sec­
t i o n s of the two fields s h o w perfect d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e .
O n l y 4 fields of K i n g d o n ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n (5*. 7*, 8 a a n d 8b) s h o w
r e - e v a l u a t i n g p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n . In 5* it i s the t h e m a t i c this t h a t
h a s b e e n r e - e v a l u a t e d . T h o u g h b e a r i n g o n l y u n a c c e n t e d stress, it be­
c o m e s the m o s t p r o s o d i c a l l y p r o m i n e n t u n i t i n the subfield. In t h i s w a y ,
s p e c i a l hie et nunc e m p h a s i s , the m o t i v a t i o n of w h i c h i s s i m i l a r to t h a t
d e s c r i b e d above, is t h r o w n o n the c e r e m o n i a l act i n progress. T h e per­
spective of field 5, however, is not affected b y t h i s r e - e v a l u a t i o n , w h i c h
takes place only i n the s u b f i e l d . P P reflects the t h e m a t i c i t y of the s u b field b y p l a c i n g it i n the p o s t - i n t o n a t i o n centre p r o s o d i c s h a d e c r e a t e d
by the n u c l e u s o n the r h e m a t i c proper. A s for O ' C o n n o r ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n
of 5*. it respects the c o n t e x t d e p e n d e n c e of tliis a n d perspectives the
subfield to do. (The low fall o n do i n O ' C o n n o r ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n does n o t
have a r e - e v a l u a t i n g effect o n field 5, b e c a u s e the c o n f i g u r a t i o n of a
h i g h rise o n fitting, a h i g h fall o n proper a n d a l o w rise o n do does evi­
dently not p e r m i t the l o w rise to act as the i n t o n a t i o n centre of the field.
A c o r r o b o r a t i o n of t h i s statement, w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s a m o d i f i c a t i o n of
the b a s i c o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t the last n u c l e u s w i t h i n a field acts as the
bearer of the h i g h e s t degree of P P , m u s t r e m a i n p e n d i n g ; cf. 1 9 9 2 . 1 5 2
a n d here p. 25.)
L i k e O ' C o n n o r . K i n g d o n r e - e v a l u a t e s one of the eight i n s t a n c e s of
here. It i s the here of 7* t h a t h a s b e e n c h o s e n b y h i m for r e - e v a l u a t i o n .
(The i n t e r p l a y of the n o n - p r o s o d i c F S P factors does not perspective field
7* to the t h e m a t i c here, b u t to the r h e m e proper, struggled.) A s h a s a l ­
ready b e e n stated, here is t h e m a t i c i n a l l its eight i n s t a n c e s i n the
w r i t t e n text. W i t h one e x c e p t i o n , K i n g d o n ' s as w e l l as O ' C o n n o r ' s
t r a n s c r i p t i o n r e n d e r s the t h e m a t i c here's p r o s o d i c a l l y less p r o m i n e n t
t h a n the c o n c u r r e n t r h e m a t i c u n i t s . In d o i n g so, b o t h t r a n s c r i p t i o n s
p r o d u c e perfect d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i n r e g a r d to
the
t h e m e - r h e m e r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h i s h o l d s g o o d irrespective of the differ­
ences i n the degrees of P P e m p l o y e d b y the two t r a n s c r i p t i o n s .
In c o n t r a s t w i t h O ' C o n n o r , K i n g d o n ' s m o t i v a t i o n for the r e - e v a l u a t i o n
of here seems to be the e m p h a s i s o n the hie c o m p o n e n t l i n k e d w i t h the
n o t i o n of 'the brave dead' (see p . 37.) It c a n n o t , however, be s a i d t h a t
this m o t i v a t i o n i s m a r k e d l y reflected b y h i s t r e a t m e n t of the other
i n s t a n c e s of here.
40
J A N FIRBAS
T h e other two fields s h o w i n g r e - e v a l u a t i n g p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n are
8 a a n d 8 b (forming the c o m p o u n d field 8). In t e r m s of the i n t e r p l a y of
the n o n - p r o s o d i c F S P factors, the following i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a p p l i e s at the
m o m e n t of w r i t t e n u t t e r a n c e a n d / o r v i s u a l p e r c e p t i o n . In either case
the g r o u p c o n s i s t i n g of the adverb i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g the n o t i o n a l
v e r b a l c o m p o n e n t [UlLle note a n d long remember, respectively) h a s no
s u c c e s s f u l c o m p e t i t o r a n d a c t s as r h e m e proper. T h e u n i t what we say
here, o n the other h a n d , c o n v e y s c o n t e x t - d e p e n d e n t i n f o r m a t i o n a n d is
t h e m a t i c . T h i s perspective i s i n d e e d reflected b y O ' C o n n o r ' s t r a n s c r i p ­
t i o n . R e - e v a l u a t i n g what we say here b y p l a c i n g the i n t o n a t i o n centre of
8 o n say. K i n g d o n ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n p r o d u c e s a powerful c o n t r a s t between
say of 8* a n d did of 9*: what we say here vs u_>/iat they did here. S t r i c t l y
s p e a k i n g , c u e s to t h i s c o n t r a s t are p r o v i d e d b y the w r i t t e n text if the
i m m e d i a t e l y following c o n t e x t (field 9) i s t a k e n into c o n s i d e r a t i o n . S e e n
i n t h i s light, the i n t e q i r e t a t i o n of g i v i n g full play to c o n t r a s t i s potential­
ly p r e s e n t i n the text, a n d the role of i n t o n a t i o n w o u l d have to be inter­
preted as c o n s i s t i n g i n r e m o v i n g potentiality by offering a n u n e q u i v o c a l
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of F S P (1992.181-6). B u t i n regard to the m o m e n t of spo­
k e n u t t e r a n c e a n d / o r a c o u s t i c p e r c e p t i o n , w h e n the following context is
n o n - e x i s t e n t , 8 a a n d 8 b are to be regarded as c a s e s of re-evaluating
prosodic intensification.
A note m a y be a d d e d h e i o on the two a d v e r b - n o t i o n a l verb c o m b i n a ­
t i o n s of 8 a a n d 8 b . It is w o r t h n o t i n g that i n each case the context-inde­
p e n d e n t adverb c a r r i e s a h i g h e r degree of P P t h a n the n o t i o n a l v e r b a l
c o m p o n e n t . T h i s u s e is not at v a r i a n c e w i t h the h i g h e r degree of C D
c a r r i e d b y the adverb, b u t seen i n the light of the a r g u m e n t s a d d u c e d
above it is to be i n t e r p r e t e d a s m a r k e d . Its m a r k e d n e s s e n h a n c e s the
e m o t i v e n e s s lent to the s e n t e n c e b y c o n t r a s t . It i s , however, not a case
of r e - e v a l u a t i n g p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n , b u t one of selective non-reevalu a t i n g p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n . (For the d i s t i n c t i o n between non-selec­
tive a n d selective n o n - r e e v a l u a t i n g p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n , see
1 9 9 2 . 1 5 6 - 9 a n d 1 6 7 - 8 . a n d also h e r e pp. 4 6 a n d 48.)
L i k e C h a r t s O ' C o n n o r 1/1 a n d 1/2, C h a r t s K i n g d o n 1/1 a n d 1/2 tes­
tify to the t r a n s c r i p t i o n e x a m i n e d s h o w i n g a h i g h degree of perfect
d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i n the r h e m e as w e l l as i n regard to the
t r a n s i t i o n - r h e m e r e l a t i o n s h i p . S u c h perfect c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i s d i s p l a y e d
b y 3 3 fields o u t of 3 7 . D e v i a t i o n s from it, t h o u g h o c c u r r i n g i n other
fields t h a n i n O ' C o n n o r ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n , are once a g a i n w e l l motivated
from the f u n c t i o n a l p o i n t of view.
6
THE TIIEME IN THE WRITTEN TEXT OF THE GETTYSBURG ADDRESS
Let m e r e c a l l t h a t i n t e r m s of the i n t e r p l a y of n o n - p r o s o d i c F S P factors
the following c o m m u n i c a t i v e u n i t s qualify as t h e m a t i c (i. e. as c o n s t i t u t ­
i n g the theme; 1 9 9 2 . 6 6 - 7 4 ) : c o n t e x t - d e p e n d e n t or c o n t e x t - i n d e p e n d e n t
u n i t s p e r f o n n i n g the B - f u n c t i o n (i. e. the d y n a m i c s e m a n t i c f u n c t i o n of
C A N T H E F U N C T I O N A L P E R S P E C T I V E O F A .SI'OKEN S E N T E N C E B E P R E D I C T E D
KR< )M T l 1AT (>F ITS W R I T T E N C O ! : N T E R P A R T ?
41
e x p r e s s i n g a B e a r e r of quality), c o n t e x t - d e p e n d e n t or c o n t e x t - i n d e p e n ­
dent u n i t s p e r f o r m i n g the S e t - f u n c t i o n (i. e. the d y n a m i c s e m a n t i c f u n c ­
tion of e x p r e s s i n g a Setting; cf. p. 31) a n d a n y other u n i t s that irrespect­
ive of sentence p o s i t i o n o r s e m a n t i c c h a r a c t e r have b e c o m e contextdependent. A l l u n i t s o c c u r r i n g i n The Gettysburg Address t h a t a n s w e r to
this d e s c r i p t i o n are r e c o r d e d o n C h a r t s O ' C o n n o r 2 / 1 a n d 2 / 2 a n d
Kingdon 2/1 and 2 / 2 .
In d e a l i n g w i t h the t h e m a t i c u n i t s I s h a l l p r o c e e d as follows. I s h a l l
first c o m m e n t o n the w a y they operate i n a t h e m a t i c layer. (A t h e m a t i c
layer of a s t r e t c h of text, for i n s t a n c e a p a r a g r a p h , is c o n s t i t u t e d b y a l l
the t h e m a t i c u n i t s of t h a t s t r e t c h of text: 1992.79.) T h e n I s h a l l specify
the f u n c t i o n s the t h e m a t i c u n i t s perform i n their fields, a n d if n e c e s s a r y
a d d i t i o n a l l y a c c o u n t i n notes for the s p e c i f i c a t i o n s offered.
T h e t h e m a t i c l a y e r c o n s i s t s of c o n t e x t - d e p e n d e n t as w e l l as contexti n d e p e n d e n t u n i t s . I agree w i t h S v o b o d a , w h o h a s t h r o w n r e v e a l i n g light
o n the o p e r a t i o n of t h e m a t i c u n i t s (Svoboda 1 9 8 1 , 1983), t h a t these
u n i t s differ i n the extent to w h i c h they are e s t a b l i s h e d i n the t h e m a t i c
layer a n d i n c o n s e q u e n c e i n the extent to w h i c h they c o n t r i b u t e t o w a r d s
the further d e v e l o p m e n t of the c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h e m o r e firmly they are
e s t a b l i s h e d i n the t h e m a t i c layer, the less they c o n t r i b u t e t o w a r d s t h i s
development. V i e w e d i n t h i s light, the t h e m a t i c u n i t s form a s c a l e t h a t
reflects a g r a d u a l decrease i n C D of the i n f o r m a t i o n c o n v e y e d b y t h e m :
(a) i n f o r m a t i o n irretrievable from the i m m e d i a t e l y relevant c o n t e x t , ver­
b a l or s i t u a t i o n a l , a n d i n t h i s w a y e n t e r i n g d i r e c t l y into the t h e m a t i c
layer of the text, i . e. not v i a its r h e m a t i c layer, (b) i n f o r m a t i o n retriev­
able from the r h e m a t i c l a y e r a n d transferred from it to the t h e m a t i c
layer, (c) i n f o r m a t i o n retrievable from the t h e m a t i c layer a n d re-expres­
sed i n it for the first time or i n f o r m a t i o n retrievable from the i m m e d i a t e ­
ly relevant s i t u a t i o n a l context a n d referred to i n the t h e m a t i c layer for
the first time, a n d (d, e. etc.) i n f o r m a t i o n retrievable from the t h e m a t i c
layer a n d re-expressed anew. A d o p t i n g S v o b o d a ' s t e r m s , w h i c h felici­
tously capture the graded character of context dependence as j u s t o u t l i n ­
ed. I c a l l the (a) a n d (b) types of i n f o r m a t i o n a n d the e l e m e n t s c o n v e y i n g
it ' d i a t h e m a t i r ' , the (c) type 'theme proper', a n d the (d, e, etc.) types as
theme p r o p e r that c a n be regarded as h a v i n g a d o p t e d the c h a r a c t e r of
'hypertheme' (a t e m i i n t r o d u c e d b y D a n e s ) . In the e x a m i n a t i o n of the
t h e m a t i c u n i t s offered below, the letters (a), (b) a n d (c) i n d i c a t e the (a),
(b) a n d (c) types of i n f o r m a t i o n a s j u s t d e s c r i b e d here. T h e (d), (e), etc.,
types are a l l i n d i c a t e d b y the letter (h), s t a n d i n g for 'hypertheme'. If
more d i a t h e m a t i c u n i t s are p r e s e n t i n the field, the one c a r r y i n g the
highest degree of C D is referred to as 'the diatheme', the o t h e r s b e i n g
regarded as 'diatheme oriented'. W i t h d u e a l t e r a t i o n s , the s a m e a p p l i e s
to items h a v i n g the c h a r a c t e r of theme proper. T h e i t e m c a r r y i n g the
lowest degree of C D is referred to as 'theme proper' a n d the o t h e r s c a r ­
r y i n g h i g h e r degrees of C D as 'theme p r o p e r oriented'. T h e a b b r e v i a t i o n s
u s e d i n the a n a l y s e s b e l o w a n d i n C h a r t s O ' C o n n o r 2 / 1 a n d 2 / 2 a n d
C h a r t s K i n g d o n 2 / 1 a n d 2 / 2 are: T h P r o , D T h o a n d D T h .
42
J A N FIRBAS
I n t e r m s of the i n t e r p l a y of the n o n - p r o s o d i c F S P factors, I i n t e r p r e t
the t h e m a t i c e l e m e n t s o c c u r r i n g i n The Gettysburg
Address
i n the
f o l l o w i n g w a y . (The letter ' N ' i n d i c a t e s t h a t a n e x p l a n a t o r y n o t e h a s b e e n
a d d e d to the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h e n o t e s are to be f o u n d after the i n t e r p r e ­
t a t i o n below.)
(1)
(1*)
(2)
(2*)
(3)
(4)
(4*)
(4")
(4"*)
(5)
(5*)
(6a)
(6I>)
(Gc)
(7)
(7*)
(8)
(8*)
(9)
(9*)
(10)
(itn
(10")
(10*")
(11)
Four score and seven years ago
(Set. DTli) our fathers (D. DTIio)
all men (B. UTli)
Now (Set. DTh)
we (ThPr)
that any nation or any nation so
conceived and so dedicated (DTli)
We (B, ThPr)
We (B, ThPr)
to dedicate (ThPr)
who (13, DTli)
here (Set, ThPr)
that nation (ThPr)
It (B, ThPr)
that we should do this (B, DTh)
we (B. ThPr)
this (Set. DTh)
in a larger sense (Set. DTh)
we (B. ThPr)
dedicate (Set. TliPro)
we (B, ThPr)
consecrate (Set, TliPro)
we (U. ThPr)
hallow (Set. TliPro)
this ground (Set. TliPro)
The brave men. living and dead
who struggled here (B, DTh)
it (Set, ThPr)
who (B, ThPr)
here (Set. TliPro)
The world (B. DTh)
whal we say here (Set, DTho)
what (Set. Dili)
we (B. ThPr)
here (Set, TliPro)
it (B, ThPr)
what (Set, DTh)
they (B. ThPr)
here (Sel. TliPro)
It (B. TUPr)
rather lo be dedicated here
(Set. DTh)
dedicated (Set, TliPro)
here (Set. ThPr)
which (Set. DTh)
they who fought here (ThPr)
who (B. ThPr)
here (Set, TliPro)
It (B. ThPr)
(a)N
(a)
(a)
(c) N
(a)N
Oi)
(10
(0
d>)
(c)N
W)
(c)N
(a)N
(li)
lb)N
(a)
(10
(h)
(10
(li)
(h)
(10
(h)
P>)
(h)
(c)
(10
(a)
(1))
(b)N
(10
(h)
W)
(1))
(10
(10
(c)
(a)N
(10
(10
0>)
(li)
(10
(10
(c)
C A N T l IE F U N C T I O N A L P t H S l e X T I V E O F A S P O K E N S E N T E N C E B E P K E D I C T E D
F R O M T l 1AT < IK ITS W R I T T E N C( I U N T E R P A R T 7
(11*)
(ll"*a)
(ll"*a*)
(ll"*b)
(ll"*b*)
(ll"*c)
(11"M)
to be here dedicated
(Set. ThPr)
from these honoured (lead
(Set. ThPro)
we (ThPr)
for which (Set, DTh)
tliey (D. TliPr)
we (D. ThPr)
here (Scl, ThPro)
these dead (D, ThPr)
this nation (B, DTho)
under God (Set. DTh)
government of the people, by the
people, for the people (B. DTh)
43
lh)
(h)
(h)
(b)
(h)
(h)
(h)
(h)
(a)N
(a)
(a)
(1) F i e l d 1 i s p r o v i d e d b y the o p e n i n g sentence. It c o n v e y s i n f o r m a t i o n
that i s retrievable n e i t h e r from the v e r b a l context (there i s n o s u c h c o n ­
text) n o r from t h e i m m e d i a t e l y relevant s i t u a t i o n a l context. It i s i m p o r ­
tant to note t h a t the w r i t t e n text p e r m i t s one to take the i m m e d i a t e l y
following context into c o n s i d e r a t i o n a n d to interpret t h e a d v e r b i a l Now
of 2 a s s t a n d i n g i n c o n t r a s t to t h e a d v e r b i a l Four score and seven years
ago of 1. T h i s c o n t r a s t r a i s e s t h e degree of C D c a r r i e d b y t h e a d v e r b i a l
of 1, i n d u c i n g it to act a s d i a t h e m e a n d r e n d e r i n g the subject of 1, o u r
fatliers, d i a t h e m e o r i e n t e d . In n o t t a k i n g the c u e offered b y 2 into c o n s i ­
d e r a t i o n , the interpreter w o u l d be l e d to view t h e c o m m u n i c a t i v e u n i t s
of 1 a s s h o w i n g a g r a d u a l r i s e i n C D . T h i s i s b e c a u s e t h e d y n a m i c
s e m a n t i c f u n c t i o n p e r f o r m e d b y the c o n t e x t - i n d e p e n d e n t u n i t s of (1) are
Set, B , Q , a n d S p (in t h a t order). S e e n i n t h i s light, Four score and seven
years ago i s c o n s i d e r e d to be d i a t h e m e o r i e n t e d a n d our faUiers to serve
as d i a t h e m e .
(2) We h a s n o p r e d e c e s s o r i n the p r e c e d i n g v e r b a l c o n t e x t a n d y e t i s
interpreted a s theme proper. T h e very fact that t h e n o t i o n of the s p e a k ­
er, o r i n t h i s case the n o t i o n of the g r o u p to w h i c h t h e s p e a k e r c o n s i d ­
ers h i m s e l f to b e l o n g , c a n be i n t r o d u c e d into the flow of c o m m u n i c a t i o n
b y a p r o n o u n a n d i n the absence of a n o n r p r o n o m i n a l p r e d e c e s s o r b e
i m m e d i a t e l y identified b y the addressee i s d u e to the referent of t h e
n o t i o n of the s p e a k e r / w r i t e r a l w a y s b e i n g present i n a n y i m m e d i a t e l y
relevant s i t u a t i o n a l context (1992.24).
(2*) W i t h Ihc e x c e p t i o n of any, the rest of the subject c o n v e y s contextdependent i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e subject i s therefore heterogeneous i n r e g a r d
to context d e p e n d e n c e / i n d e p e n d e n c e . B u t the c o n t e x t i n d e p e n d e n c e
a n d the q u a n t i f y i n g force of any p r e d o m i n a t e s , so that the subject i s
regarded as p r e d o m i n a n t l y c o n t e x t - i n d e p e n d e n t (1992.36-7) a n d i n i t s
entirety serves a s d i a t h e m e . T h e o t h e r c o m m u n i c a t i v e u n i t s of t h e s u b field p r o v i d e d b y t h e subject n o u n p h r a s e are n o t d i s c u s s e d . A s h a s
been p o i n t e d o u t . subfielcls p r o v i d e d b y n o u n p h r a s e s are d i s c u s s e d
o n l y e x c e p t i o n a l l y i n the present paper.
(4**) T h e a d v e r b i a l here h a s two p r e d e c e s s o r s i n the i m m e d i a t e l y rele­
v a n t context: a great battlefield i n 3 a n d a portion of tliat field i n 4 .
44
JAN
FIRBAS
(5) It c a t a p h o r i c a l l y p o i n t s to a piece of i n f o r m a t i o n that is to be m e n ­
t i o n e d later. In t h i s w a y it p a r t i c i p a t e s i n the d e v e l o p m e n t of the c o m m u ­
n i c a t i o n , b u t o n a c c o u n t of its very s m a l l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o w a r d s this
d e v e l o p m e n t c a n n o t b u t be a s s e s s e d as theme proper. T h e i n f o r m a t i o n
to be c o n v e y e d later is e x p r e s s e d b y the u n i t that we should do this,
w h i c h is d i a t h e m a t i c a n d p r o v i d e s the s u b f i e l d 5*.
(5*) W i t h i n t h i s s u b f i e l d we a n d tliis are context-dependent. O n
a c c o u n t of the c o n t e x t - i n d e p e n d e n t sliould do, however, the u n i t is pre­
d o m i n a n t l y c o n t e x t - i n d e p e n d e n t . T h e subject of 2* (see note) a n d the
s u b f i e l d 5* are not the o n l y u n i t s that are heterogeneous i n regard to
context d e p e n d e n c e / i n d e p e n d e n c e , I do not c o n s i d e r it necessary to
c o m m e n t o n every u n i t of t h i s type i n these notes.
(8*) In its entirety, the u n i t what we say liere refers to the a d d r e s s j u s t
delivered a n d i n this s e n s e c o n v e y s retrievable i n f o r m a t i o n . Never­
theless, the s u b f i e l d 8* p r o v i d e d b y this u n i t h a s its perspective. It is
p e r s p e c t i v e d t o w a r d s say, w h i c h u n d e r the c i r c u m s t a n c e s a s s e r t s itself
o n a c c o u n t of its s e m a n t i c weight. B u t let m e r e c a l l that the i m m e d i a t e ­
ly following context y i e l d s a c u e w h i c h if t a k e n into a c c o u n t p u t s say i n
c o n t r a s t w i t h did of 9* (cf. p. 40). In that case say is i n d u c e d to convey
a d d i t i o n a l c o n t e x t - i n d e p e n d e n t i n f o r m a t i o n . O f the three other u n i t s of
8*, what exceeds i n C D b o t h we a n d here. It h a s b e e n interpreted as a
d i a t h e m a t i c element sui generis (cf. the inteq^retation of the F S P func­
t i o n of tt'/i-words i n 1992.100).
(10) O n a c c o u n t of the n o t i o n of 'preference' c o n v e y e d b y rather, the
unit is predominantly context-independent.
( l l * * * c ) This nation is i n t e r p r e t e d a s c o n v e y i n g i n f o r m a t i o n irretriev­
able from the i m m e d i a t e l y relevant p r e c e d i n g context. T h e retrievability
s p a n ( 1 9 9 2 . 2 5 ff.) o p e n e d by tliis nation of 1 a n d its r e - e x p r e s s i o n of 2 is
c o n s i d e r e d to have been obliterated.
W e c a n n o w t u r n o u r a t t e n t i o n to the tonetic i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s .
7
THE THEME IN O'CONNOR'S TONETIC TRANSCRIPTION
A s h a s a l r e a d y been p o i n t e d out, C h a r t s O ' C o n n o r 2 / 1 a n d 2 / 2 a n d
K i n g d o n 2 / 1 a n d 2 / 2 list a l l the t h e m a t i c u n i t s i n the fields e x a m i n e d .
In a d d i t i o n , they list a l l the n o n - t h e m a t i c u n i t s t h a t deviate from perfect
d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e . T h e s e u n i t s are p l a c e d w i t h i n s q u a r e
b r a c k e t s , [ ]. N o n - t h e m a t i c u n i t s t h a t do not deviate from perfect d i s t r i ­
b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e are r e p r e s e n t e d by three dots (...). U n i t s affec­
ted b y r e - e v a l u a t i n g p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n are followed b y the re-eval­
u a t i o n s i g n . >, a n d e n c l o s e d i n v i r g u l e s , / / . O u t s i d e the v i r g u l e s , they
are r e s t a t e d a n d p r o v i d e d w i t h the tonetic m a r k s reflecting the o u t c o m e
of the r e - e v a l u a t i o n . A n u n d e r l i n e w i t h i n the v i r g u l e s i n d i c a t e s o r i g i n a l
r h e m a t i c i t y ; one o u t s i d e the v i r g u l e s i n d i c a t e s r h e m a t i c i t y r e s u l t i n g
from r e - e v a l u a t i o n . U n i t s o c c u r r i n g i n the v i r g u l e s w i t h o u t b e i n g u n d e r -
CAN T H E FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVE O F A SPOKEN S E N T E N C E B E PREDICTED
1"R( IM T H A T O F ITS W R I T T E N V.I >l!NTERPART?
45
l i n e d are o r i g i n a l l y t h e m a t i c . R e v e r s e d v i r g u l e s are not e m p l o y e d i n the
C h a r t s c o v e r i n g the t h e m a t i c elements.
T h e n u m b e r of fields l i s t e d o n C h a r t s O ' C o n n o r 2 / 1 a n d 2 / 2 a n d
K i n g d o n 2 / 1 a n d 2 / 2 is lower t h a n the n u m b e r of those l i s t e d o n
C h a r t s O ' C o n n o r 1/1 a n d 1/2 a n d K i n g d o n 1/1 a n d 1/2. T h i s is b e c a u s e
C h a r t s 2 / 1 a n d 2 / 2 do not r e c o r d fields o p e n i n g w i t h n o n - f i n i t e v e r b
forms (see conceived of l * a , dedicated of l * b , testing of 2* a n d remaining
of 11*) a n d c o n t a i n i n g no t h e m a t i c u n i t s , n o r do they treat the c o - o r d i ­
nate little note a n d long remember of 8 i n two fields.
I c a n n o w r e s u m e the a s s e s s m e n t of d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e .
W i t h the e x c e p t i o n of 4 fields (6a, 6 b , 6 c , 8*) t h a t s h o w r e - e v a l u a t i n g
i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n a n d have already b e e n d i s c t i s s e d i n the c o m m e n t s o n
C h a r t s O ' C o n n o r 1/1 a n d 1/2, a l l the fields (27 i n n u m b e r ) l i s t e d b y
C h a r t s O ' C o n n o r 2 / 1 a n d 2 / 2 s h o w perfect d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n ­
dence i n two respects. T h e y do so b o t h i n regard to the t r a n s i f i o n - r h e m e
relation (as h a s already b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d b y C h a r t s O ' C o n n o r 1/1 a n d
1/2) a n d i n regard to the t h e m e - r h e m e r e l a t i o n (as i s n o w e v i d e n c e d b y
C h a r t s O ' C o n n o r 2 / 1 a n d 2 / 2 ) . Perfect d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i n
all respects is s h o w n b y 5 fields (1, 3, 4, 7* a n d 10***). T h i s m e a n s t h a t
out of the 2 7 fields u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n 2 3 s h o w d e v i a t i o n s that o c c u r
w i t h i n the n o n - r h e m a f i c sphere, a n d a p p e a r p r i m a r i l y to c o n c e r n the
t h e m e - t r a n s i t i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p . B u t a s the folowing a n a l y s i s s h o w s , these
deviations have a w i d e r f u n c t i o n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e .
In a n o v e r w h e l m i n g majority of cases (22 out of 23), these deviations
are of one type: they involve p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of t h e m a t i c u n i t s at
the expense of t r a n s i t i o n a l u n i t s . U n d e r the h e a d i n g of the latter come
the T M E s , w h i c h i n v a r i a b l y serve as t r a n s i t i o n proper, c o n j u n c t i o n s
(1992.93), w h i c h are t r a n s i t i o n - p r o p e r oriented, a n d the n o t i o n a l v e r b a l
c o m p o n e n t s i f c o n s t i t u t i n g the rest of t r a n s i t i o n . (Within the s q u a r e
brackets, a single '+' s i g n i n d i c a t e s T M E s i m p l e m e n t e d by a u x i l i a r i e s a n d
the ' N ' s i g n i n d i c a t e s a n o t i o n a l v e r b a l c o m p o n e n t , the ligature '+N' b e i n g
u s e d w h e n the T M E s are i m p l e m e n t e d b y v e r b a l affixes a n d merge w i t h
the n o t i o n a l v e r b a l c o m p o n e n t . T h e '+o' sign s t a n d s for t r a n s i t i o n p r o p e r
oriented units.) It i s significant t h a t the p r o s o d i c w e a k e n i n g of the t r a n ­
s i t i o n a l u n i t s t a k e s place at a p o i n t where, i n terms of the interpretative
arrangement (1992.12-3), the b o u n d a r y / l i n k between the theme a n d the
n o n - t h e m e is s i t u a t e d . T h i s i s c e r t a i n l y not at v a r i a n c e w i t h the T M E s
i n v a r i a b l y p e r f o r m i n g this b o u n d a r y / l i n k role, a n d the n o t i o n a l verbal
c o m p o n e n t s h o w i n g a s t r o n g tendency to act as t r a n s i t i o n between the
theme a n d the r h e m e . T h e p r o s o d i c w e a k e n i n g of the t r a n s i t i o n p e r m i t s
the p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of the u n i t c a r r y i n g the highest degree of C D
w i t h i n the theme (which u s u a l l y acts as diatheme) a n d i n t h i s w a y p u t s
it i n a k i n d of o p p o s i t i o n to the u n i t c a r r y i n g the highest degree of C D
w i t h i n the n o n - t h e m e ( w h i c h acts as r h e m e proper).
A s the p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n d i s c u s s e d does not affect the themer h e m e r e l a t i o n , it i s n o n - r e e v a l u a t i n g . A s i n d e v i a t i n g f r o m perfect
d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e it p r o s o d i c a l l y intensifies a t h e m a t i c u n i t
46
J A N FIRBAS
at the expense of a t r a n s i t i o n a l u n i t or t r a n s i t i o n a l u n i t s , it i s selective.
It i s therefore to be d e s c r i b e d as selective n o n - r e e v a l u a t i n g p r o s o d l c
i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n . A s for non-selective n o n - r e e v a l u a t i n g p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i ­
c a t i o n (1992.154-9), it intensifies w i t h o u t affecting perfect d i s t r i b u t i o n a l
c o r r e s p o n d e n c e . T h i s w i l l be t o u c h e d u p o n i n C h a p t e r 8. T h e C h a r t s list
o n l y c a s e s of the selective type. T h e y are a c c o m p a n i e d w i t h the l a b e l
' N . - R . INT.'
F o r the s a k e of c o m p l e t e n e s s , let m e a d d two notes. T h e first c o n c e r n s
the o n l y field (4**) that o u t of the 2 3 fields affected b y selective non-ree­
v a l u a t i n g p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n does not s h o w a p r o s o d i c a l l y w e a k ­
ened t r a n s i t i o n . T h e p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e w i t h i n its theme.
T h e s e c o n d note c o n c e r n s two fields (10** a n d l l * * a * ) i n w h i c h s u c h
i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o c c u r s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h the selective i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n
of a t h e m a t i c u n i t at the expense of the t r a n s i t i o n . (Fields s h o w i n g
selective n o n - r e e v a l u a t i n g i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n w i t h i n the theme are a c c o m p a ­
n i e d i n the C h a r t s w i t h a p a i r of e m p t y s q u a r e brackets.)
8 THE THEME IN KINGDON'S TONETIC TRANSCRIPTION
C h a r t s K i n g d o n 2 / 1 a n d 2 / 2 offer a p i c t u r e i d e n t i c a l i n c h a r a c t e r w i t h
t h a t offered b y C h a r t s O ' C o n n o r 2 / 1 a n d 2 / 2 .
W i t h the e x c e p t i o n of 3 fields (5*, 7* a n d 8 [listed as 8 a a n d 8 b on
K i n g d o n 1/1]) t h a t s h o w r e - e v a l u a t i n g p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n a n d have
a l r e a d y b e e n d i s c u s s e d i n the c o m m e n t s o n C h a r t s K i n g d o n 1/1 a n d
1/2, a l l the fields (29 i n n u m b e r ) l i s t e d b y C h a r t s K i n g d o n 2 / 1 a n d 2 / 2
s h o w perfect d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i n two respects. T h e y do so
b o t h i n r e g a r d to the t r a n s i t i o n - r h e m e r e l a t i o n (as h a s already b e e n
e s t a b l i s h e d b y C h a r t s K i n g d o n 1/1 a n d 1/2) a n d i n r e g a r d to the
t h e m e - r e l a t i o n (as i s n o w e v i d e n c e d b y C h a r t s K i n g d o n 2 / 1 a n d 2 / 2 ) .
Perfect d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i n a l l respects is s h o w n b y 5 fields
(3. 4, 6 b , 6c a n d 10***). T h i s m e a n s t h a t o u t of the 29 fields u n d e r dis­
c u s s i o n , 24 s h o w d e v i a t i o n s t h a t o c c u r w i t h i n the n o n - r h e m a t i c sphere,
a n d a p p e a r p r i m a r i l y to c o n c e r n the t h e m e - t r a n s i t i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p . B u t
l i k e the p r e c e d i n g a n a l y s i s of O ' C o n n o r 2 / 1 a n d 2 / 2 , the following a n a l ­
y s i s b e a r s o u t the w i d e r s i g n i f i c a n c e of the d e v i a t i o n s .
In a n o v e r w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y of c a s e s (22 o u t of 24), these deviations
are of one type: they involve p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of t h e m a t i c u n i t s at
the e x p e n s e of t r a n s i t i o n a l u n i t s . (Their c h a r a c t e r s are i n d i c a t e d i n the
s q u a r e brackets.) T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h i s p h e n o m e n o n offered above
i n the c o m m e n t s o n O ' C o n n o r 2 / 1 a n d 2 / 2 a p p l i e s here i n full a n d
c o u l d be r e p e a t e d here. L e t m e j u s t r e c a l l t h a t the p r o s o d i c w e a k e n i n g
of the t r a n s i t i o n a l u n i t s t a k e s p l a c e at a p o i n t w h e r e i n t e r m s of the
i n t e r p r e t a t i v e a r r a n g e m e n t (1992.12-3) the b o u n d a r y / l i n k between the
t h e m e a n d the n o n - t h e m e is s i t u a t e d , a n d t h a t it e n a b l e s the d i a t h e m e
to s t a n d i n a k i n d of o p p o s i t i o n to r h e m e proper.
CAN T H E FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVE O F A SPOKEN S E N T E N C E B E PREDICTED
F R O M T H A T O F ITS W R I T T E N C O U N T E R P A R T ?
47
O u t of the 24 fields affected b y selective n o n - r e e v a l u a t i n g i n t e n s i f i c a ­
t i o n , two (8* a n d 9*) do n o t s h o w s u c h i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n w i l h i n the t r a n s i ­
tion, b u t w i t h i n the theme. I n two o t h e r c a s e s (fields 10** a n d l l * * a * )
i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n w i t h i n the t h e m e a c c o m p a n i e s the i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of a
thematic u n i t at the expense of a t r a n s i t i o n a l u n i t .
T h i s b r i n g s me to the e n d of the a n a l y s i s of the w r i t t e n f o r m a n d two
tonetic t r a n s c r i p t i o n s of The Gettysburg Address,
c a r r i e d o u t f r o m the
p o i n t of view of F S P . Its r e s u l t s c o r r o b o r a t e the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t F S P i s a
s y s t e m a c c o u n t a b l e for b y a n i n t e r p l a y of F S P factors. T h e p o s s i b l e
objection t h a t the text a n a l y s e d is too s h o r t to p e r m i t of s u c h a c o n c l u ­
s i o n c a n n o t h o l d , for the r e s u l t s of the a n a l y s i s are i n h a r m o n y w i t h
those offered b y p r e v i o u s a n a l y s e s c a r r i e d o u t o n s i m i l a r l i n e s ; see, for
instance, F i r b a s 1989, a n a l y s i n g the tonetic i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of a piece
of n a r r a t i v e prose, a n d F i r b a s 1987 a n d 1992, a n a l y s i n g tonetic i m p l e ­
m e n t a t i o n s of d i a l o g u e s . T h i s series of a n a l y s e s , of w h i c h the p r e s e n t
a n a l y s i s d e a l i n g w i t h a piece of oratory forms part, testifies to the a p p l i ­
c a b i l i t y of the theory of F S P here p r e s e n t e d to different f u n c t i o n a l styles.
9 SUMMING UP THE ANSWER TO THE QUESTION POSED
Two s p e a k e r s r e a d i n g a l o u d one a n d the s a m e text w i l l differ i n the
d i s t r i b u t i o n of degrees of P P . T h e y c a n h a r d l y be expected to u s e i n t o n a t i o n a l (prosodic) m e a n s i n exactly the s a m e w a y a n d to p r o d u c e e x a c t l y
the s a m e a t t i t u d i n a l c o m m e n t a r y o n w h a t i s c o n v e y e d b y the n o n - i n t o n a t i o n a l (non-prosodic) m e a n s . Nevertheless, t h e y c a n n o t d i s t r i b u t e the
degrees of P P J u s t at w i l l . In d i s t r i b u t i n g t h e m , they are b o u n d to observe
w h a t m a y be t e r m e d l a w s of d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , i n other
w o r d s , l a w s of r e l a t i o n s h i p between the d i s t r i b u t i o n of degrees of C D as
d e t e r m i n e d b y the n o n - p r o s o d i c factors of F S P o n the one h a n d , a n d the
d i s t r i b u t i o n of degrees of P P o n the other. Different a t t i t u d i n a l c o m m e n t
is c o n v e y e d t h r o u g h p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n , w h i c h e i t h e r c o n t i n u e s to
reflect perfect d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , or deviates f r o m it. If d e v i ­
ating, it either (a) affects the t h e m e - r h e m e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h i n a g i v e n
d i s t r i b u t i o n a l field, or (b) leaves it unaffected. In the latter c a s e (b), it
affects the n o n - r h e m a t i c s p h e r e of the field, p r o s o d i c a l l y i n t e n s i f y i n g
one or m o r e of its u n i t s at the expense of the others. In the former c a s e
(a), it re-perspectives the field, a d d i n g a n e w emotive d i m e n s i o n to the
message conveyed b y it. T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of degrees of C D as d e t e r m i n e d
by the n o n - p r o s o d i c F S P factors is not obliterated b y p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i ­
c a t i o n . O n the c o n t r a r y , p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n t a k e s place a g a i n s t the
b a c k g r o u n d of perfect d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e . A s p r o s o d i c i n t e n ­
sification i s a v e h i c l e of the s p e a k e r ' s a d d i n g a t t i t u d i n a l c o m m e n t o n the
message c o n v e y e d b y the n o n - p r o s o d i c m e a n s a n d a s s u c h c o n t r i b u t e s
i n f o r m a t i o n a n d p a r t i c i p a t e s i n the futher development of the c o m u n i c a t i o n , it raises degrees of C D .
48
JAN
FIRBAS
In c o m p a r i n g O ' C o n n o r ' s a n d K i n g d o n ' s tonetic t r a n s c r i p t i o n s , I c o n ­
c e n t r a t e d o n p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n d e v i a t i n g from perfect d i s t r i b u t i o n a l
c o r r e s p o n d e n c e . I d i d not pay s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n to p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i c a ­
t i o n not d e v i a t i n g from s u c h c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , i . e. to non-selective n o n r e e v a l u a t i n g p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n . I a m , of c o u r s e , aware that s u c h
i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n c a n effectively p a r t i c i p a t e i n i n c r e a s i n g the difference
between two p r o s o d i c i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s of a text. (For i n s t a n c e , the choice
of t u n e types m a y p l a y a significant role i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n ; cf.
1992.155-6.)
A s to the difference between O ' C o n n o r ' s a n d K i n g d o n ' s i m p l e m e n t a ­
t i o n s let m e j u s t a d d the following o b s e r v a t i o n . It c o n c e r n s the total
n u m b e r of tone u n i t s not affected b y r e - e v a l u a t i n g p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i c a ­
t i o n . W h e r e a s K i n g d o n ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n h a s o n l y 4 5 s u c h tone u n i t s ,
O ' C o n n o r ' s h a s a s m a n y a s 6 4 . T h i s c o n s e q u e n t l y i n c r e a s e s the n u m b e r
of n u c l e i , s e r v i n g as c o n s t i t u t i v e features of tone u n i t s , i n O ' C o n n o r ' s
t r a n s c r i p t i o n . T h e greater n u m b e r of tone u n i t s e n t a i l s a greater n u m ­
ber of p a u s e s a n d s l o w s d o w n the tempo of the a d d r e s s as t r a n s c r i b e d
b y O ' C o n n o r . T h e s e features testify to the p r o n o u n c e d o r a t o r i c a l c h a r a c ­
ter of O ' C o n n o r ' s i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . T h i s is further e n h a n c e d t h r o u g h
n o n - i n t o n a t i o n a l m e a n s s u c h as the u s e of the glottal stop (see, e. g.,
o u r a n d are of 1, a n d a n y of 2, i n O ' C o n n o r ' s t r a n s c r i p t i o n ) a n d the use
of the s t r o n g forms of s h o r t s t r u c t u r e w o r d s (see, e. g. the a u x i l i a r i e s are
of 1, c a n of 2, a n d have of 4: the p r e p o s i t i o n s of of 3, for of 4 a n d for of
10: i n the o r i g i n a l s o u r c e , O ' C o n n o r 1 9 7 1 . 1 , p h o n e t i c a l l y t r a n s c r i b i n g
also v o w e l s a n d c o n s o n a n t s ) . Reflecting the attitude of the speaker, a l l
these features d u l y raise the degrees of C D .
I c a n n o w s u m u p m y a n s w e r to the q u e s t i o n p o s e d b y the title of the
p r e s e n t p a p e r i n the following w a y . A s a factor of F S P , i n t o n a t i o n c a n n o t
operate i n d e p e n d e n t l y of the o u t c o m e of the i n t e r p l a y of the n o n - p r o s o d i c
F S P factors. T h i s n a t u r a l l y a p p l i e s even to c a s e s i n w h i c h i n t o n a t i o n
c o m p l e t e s this i n t e r p l a y b y d i s a m b i g u a t i n g n o n - p r o s o d i c s i g n a l s or, o n
the other h a n d , even to c a s e s w h e n it b l u r s the o u t c o m e of the i n t e r p l a y
t h r o u g h a u t o m a t i c p l a c e m e n t of the i n t o n a t i o n centre o n the l a s t stres­
s e d u n i t of a field (not e n c o u n t e r e d i n the t r a n s c r i p t i o n s examined). T h e
d e p e n d e n c e of i n t o n a t i o n o n the other F S P factors m a k e s it evident that
to a c e r t a i n extent d i s t r i b u t i o n of degrees of P P over the s p o k e n sentence
c a n be p r e d i c t e d f r o m the d i s t r i b u t i o n of degrees of C D a s d e t e r m i n e d
b y the i n t e r p l a y of the n o n - p r o s o d i c F S P factors; i n other w o r d s , t h a t to
a c e r t a i n extent the f u n c t i o n a l perspective of a s p o k e n sentence c a n be
p r e d i c t e d from the f u n c t i o n a l perspective of its w r i t t e n c o u n t e r p a r t . T h e
q u a l i f i c a t i o n 'to a c e r t a i n excent' i s i m p o r t a n t . It i s n e c e s s i t a t e d b y the
following facts.
If the o u t c o m e of the i n t e r p l a y of the n o n - p r o s o d i c F S P factors i s u n ­
e q u i v o c a l ( w h i c h is a c h i e v e d i n a n o v e r w h e l m i n g majority of cases), it
p e r m i t s u s to p r e d i c t the p r o s o d i c a l l y n o n - r e e v a l u a t e d f u n c t i o n a l per­
spective reflected b y the s p o k e n sentence. W e c a n p r e d i c t that u n d e r
these c i r c u m s t a n c e s , the t h e m e w i l l be p r o s o d i c a l l y less p r o m i n e n t t h a n
CAN T H E FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVE O F A SPOKEN S E O T E N C E B E PREDICTED
F R O M T H A T O F ITS W R I T T E N C O U N T E R P A R T ?
49
the rheme; w e c a n even p r e d i c t t h a t w i t h i n the t h e m e the m o s t p r o m i ­
n e n t element w i l l be the d i a t h e m e , a n d w i t h i n the r h e m e , t h e r h e m e
proper. W e c a n n o t , however, p r e d i c t t h e exact p r o s o d i c i m p l e m e n t a t i o n
of a sentence. W e c a n n o t a l w a y s p r e d i c t w h e t h e r t h e s p e a k e r w i l l have
r e c o u r s e to p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n , a n d i f h e does s o , w h e t h e r t h e
i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n e m p l o y e d b y h i m w i l l b e of the non-selective n o n - r e e v a l u ating, selective n o n - r e e v a l u a l i n g , or r e - e v a l u a t i n g , type. N o r c a n w e
predict i n every c a s e t h e exact form of the tonetic p a t t e r n (the exact
form of the tune) the s p e a k e r i s g o i n g to u s e . P r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n i s
a m e a n s of the s p o k e n n o r m of l a n g u a g e a n d therefore a b s e n t from i t s
w r i t t e n n o r m . It i s the v e h i c l e of t h e speaker's, n o t t h e w r i t e r ' s , r u n n i n g
a t t i t u d i n a l c o m m e n t a r y o n the m e s s a g e c o n v e y e d . Nevertheless, t h e
a n a l y s e s of the two t r a n s c r i p t i o n s have c o r r o b o r a t e d t h a t l a n g u a g e i s a
s y s t e m , a n d t h a t p r o s o d i c i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n , w h i c h r a i s e s the degrees of
C D , operates against the b a c k g r o u n d of perfect c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n
the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f degrees o f C D a s d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e n o n - p r o s o d i c F S P
factors o n the o n e h a n d a n d the d i s t r i b u t i o n of degrees of P P o n t h e
other.
A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T . T h a n k s are d u e to t h e p u b l i s h e r s , C a m b r i d g e
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s a n d L o n g m a n , for k i n d l y p e r m i t t i n g to r e p r i n t t h e two
t r a n s c r i p t i o n s d i s c u s s e d a n d a n a l y s e d i n the p r e s e n t s t u d y .
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