Nutrition and Body Composition
Periodisation for Elite Athletes
Dr. Trent Stellingwerff, PhD
Nestlé Research Center Senior Scientist
Physical Performance & Mobility Research Group
Athletics Canada Performance Nutrition/Exercise Physiology Consultant
Authors Quote:
“For elite athletes the difference between winning and just making a final is often less than
a few percentage points. However, realising optimal body composition (e.g. power to
weight ratio, lean muscle mass) is an important factor dictating a best possible periodised
‘peak’ at a major championship. This review will examine scientific data, coupled with
practical experiences, to provide a framework with workable examples on the best way to
approach this key factor in elite sport performance success.”
Considerable media attention is given to the hundreds of different purported diet and weight
loss solutions, and there are as many studies examining the interaction between dieting and
weight loss, but primarily in overweight and obese subjects. There is also considerable crosssectional body composition data demonstrating the overwhelming importance of optimising
body composition in elite athletes. Across the entire range of sports, athletes’ body types and
body compositions are genetically predisposed and adapted via training within the continuum
of three main body types of Endo-, Meso- and Ectomorph – and the typical respective sportspecific body weight and body composition standards (Fig 1).
-- Insert Figure 1
For athletes, realising a very low body fat percentage, an increased power to weight ratio and
optimal aesthetics (e.g. synchronised swimming / figure skating) can all lead to significant
performance increases. However, for elite athletes and coaches, very little scientific
information exists on how best to approach this key factor for performance. This report will
examine the limited scientific data, coupled with practical experiences, to provide a
framework with workable examples on the best way to approach this key factor in elite sport
performance success. It will focus on methods and techniques in assisting athletes and their
individual integrated support teams (ISTs) to realise an optimal and lean physique in a
periodised fashion.
Figure 1. General overview of different body types, performance characteristics and associated body composition measurements in elite athletes.
BW = body weight; %BF = percent body fat;
** Outlier sports featuring weight class or an aesthetic component
Data adapted from: (4, 7, 20)
Weight loss versus altering body composition – need for monitoring
Although linked, body weight (kg or pounds) is different than body composition (% body fat,
height, limb girths etc.) – and these two components should be considered independently.
Body weight is self-explanatory, while optimising body composition focuses on loosing body
fat, while concurrently maintaining or minimising the loss of lean muscle mass. For example,
despite the fact that 2000m rowers and athletics 1500m runners both compete at nearly
maximal energy provision for close to the same amount of time (~4 to 6 min), the types of
body compositions that dictate success are fundamentally different between these sports.
Therefore, rowers and middle-distance athletes are separated according to power endurance
(less weight dependant) and strut endurance (more weight dependant), respectively (Fig 1).
(N.B. The terminology of power vs. strut endurance athletes capture an emerging vernacular
among sport scientists to differentiate between aerobic endurance athletes who are either
somewhat weight supported, and who’s neural firing patterns are slower and on the order of
seconds, versus strut endurance athletes who are completely weight dependant and upright,
and who’s neural firing patterns are on the order of milli-seconds, respectively.)
Thus, for many elite athletes approaching the right side of Figure 1, where a high relative
importance of body composition and weight help drive sporting success, a consistent
monitoring program should be in place and, ideally, be coordinated by an appropriately
trained and educated IST member. By measuring and assessing these parameters over time,
one can truly see if they are making ideal periodised changes in their body weight, body fat
percentage and in their muscle girths/circumference (Fig 2) to result in optimised
performance.
There are several methods to monitor weight and body composition highlighted in table 1.
The first three are the easiest and most widely used. If a well-trained person who can do
skin-folds is available, this can still be an easy and inexpensive way to track body composition.
Bio-impedance analysis (BIA) scales can now be purchased at relatively low cost, which will
also give a reading of % body fat, along with weight. However, for elite athletes at the
extremes of body composition measurements (e.g. extremely low % body fat) the
measured % body fat values by BIA scales should be interpreted with caution, as BIA values in
elite athletes can be greater or less than actual values by ~5% (19).. It is important when
using BIA scales to do measurements at the same time of the day and under similar hydration
status. It is of this authors opinion that BIA scales can be valuable in this process, as despite
having problems with the absolute value of %body fat, these scales work well to examine
relative changes in a given individual over time. However, if available, the most accurate
measures of % body fat is determined via underwater weighing and DEXA scanning.
Table 1. Methods/Techniques to monitor body weight and body composition
• Weigh scale and tape measure to assess body weight, body height, girths (easy,
inexpensive, practical, limited information, accurate information)
• Skin-folds to estimate body fat percentage (ISAK method) (more technical, need someone
trained, inexpensive, less practical, more information, but lower accuracy)
• Bio-impedance analysis (BIA) scales to measure body composition (eg TANITA scale-- easy
to use, less expensive, practical for home use, but lower accuracy)
• Underwater weighing to measure body composition (very technical, expensive upkeep,
impractical, Gold standard for accuracy)
• DEXA scan to measure body composition (technical- but easy to use, VERY expensive, very
accurate, ‘new’ gold standard)
Periodising training & body composition throughout the season
Although the concept of training periodisation has been around since the 1950’s (initially
made popular by Russian sports scientists (2), the concept of coupling nutrition and body
composition periodisation with elite athletes is just starting to gain scientific awareness (17).
Like training and nutrition, body composition should also be periodised over the training year,
and athletes should only aspire to be truly at competition ‘performance weight and body
composition’ for short periods of time throughout the year. Some athletes aspire to be at
competition weight year round— but, this approach can be both physically and emotionally
difficult and can lead to risk of injury, sickness and health issues. Figure 2 highlights actual
body composition and weight data collected on an elite female middle-distance athlete.
Several points to note are the fact that this athlete showed a ~5% change in body weight and
a ~4% change in % body fat between “in season” and “off season” measures. Further, there
was a complete maintenance of muscle quad girth – which is fundamentally important for a
weight-dependant strut endurance athlete. This was primarily accomplished through the
targeted use of dietary protein and sport-specific functional resistance based exercise (see
next section for specific details).
Figure 2. Practical example of periodised body composition of an elite female middledistance athlete (data used by permission).
Although decreasing body weight does lead to increases in the power to weight ratio, and in
many instances a short-term increase in performance, constantly pursuing low “in-season”
body weight can result in increased likelihood of sickness, injury, over-reaching and overtraining (see Fig 3 & Pitfalls section below). A very well done study, in elite female gymnasts
and runners, examined the relationship between energy deficits and body composition (6).
Interestingly, one of the main findings was that the athletes in the greatest negative energy
balance (gymnasts) actually had the highest % body fat. This is in line with previous studies
showing that energy restriction can cause a decrease in basal metabolic rate as well as an
increase in fat storage from the limited energy that is consumed. Therefore, training for the
majority of the season in a situation where ample healthy fuel (calories) can (and is allowed
to) be consumed can not only help with maintaining a leaner physique (lower % body fat), but
also to optimise recovery and prevent overtraining during high training loads (8).
Although there are very little scientific studies examining this concept of periodising body
composition in elite athletes, many international sport institutes and Registered Dietitian’s
(RD’s) use the approach outlined in Figure 3 (personal communication). Furthermore, most
experts in this area recommend a target range of a ~4 to 8% increase in total body weight in
training season as compared to peak competition season – any more weight gain than this
can potentially cause too much joint loading and increase potential for injury, as well result in
too much weight to loose again prior to the next competitive season.
Finally, during tapering, when total training load is decreased, it has been shown that ad
libitum energy intake is not immediately matched by reduced energy expenditure, as found
during the competition phase (18). Therefore, athletes need to make conscious decisions
about limiting their total energy intake during this phase to maintain an ideal peak body
composition. Accordingly, during the competition phase, daily weigh-ins and monitoring prior
to major events is strongly recommended so that small adaptations can be made – ideally this
is undertaken in close consultation with an nutrition / physiology expert.
Figure 3. Generalised recommendations for safely periodising body composition and weight
throughout the yearly training and competition calendar.
Specifics: How to loose weight while maintaining lean muscle mass
Despite many studies being published on weight loss using either dietary or exercise, or
combination approaches, the vast majority of these studies have been conducted in
overweight and obese population. However, there is actually a real lack of strong scientific
research looking at how best to approach common questions regarding changing and
optimising body composition in elite athletes while concurrently undertaking extreme
training loads in relation to performance outcomes. Table 2 highlights all of the
recommendations, of which the key ones are discussed further below.
Decreased energy intake versus increased energy expenditure, or both?
It is generally accepted that the most critical factor in determining weight loss is inducing a
negative energy balance through less total energy intake (9). However, unfortunately, when
energy intake is decreased the basal metabolic rate is reduced by 15-30% within 24-48 hours.
In addition, decreasing body weight is fundamentally different than altering and optimising
body composition. Current textbook knowledge on weight loss suggests that when
individuals are in a negative energy balance they will loose both body fat and muscle massone just hopes to loose more fat than muscle. This is probably true when the negative energy
balance is induced only from a decrease in dietary intake. However, recent data suggests that
through aggressive exercise and protein periodisation, muscle mass can actually be 100%
maintained while athletes still lose total body weight (with some individual subjects actually
gaining lean muscle mass) during a one-week period of a large 40% negative energy balance
(12). In this study, subjects utilized a higher protein diet, with resistance exercise, to loose
significant weight (~1.5kg; 3.3 pounds), of which nearly 100% of this weight was fat loss, not
muscle loss. Therefore, a combined approach of slightly decreasing energy intake, combined
with either a maintenance of training load, or slightly increased energy expenditure
(particularly functional weight/resistive training), is the best approach to optimising body
composition over a ~3 to 6 week period prior to the targeted competitive season (Fig 3).
How much negative energy balance is optimal?
Currently, most experts recommend ~500 kcal deficit per day for dietary weight loss programs
that don’t feature an exercise component (15). But, there is very limited information in
whether this deficit is adequate or too much in athletes with hard training loads. It is also
recommended that this negative energy balance can effectively be approached through a
self-selected ad libitum reduction in fat intake (focusing on limiting fat in the diet and slightly
smaller serving sizes). Although this is not studied well in elite athletes, this approach
typically results in satisfactory outcomes for those athletes with high energy expenditures and
modest reduction goals. This method is also favourable as it is less restrictive, does not
compromise carbohydrate intake (and thus training quantity and quality), and is less likely to
result in reactive binge eating (Table 2).
Key macronutrient: Protein
It appears that an essential element in optimising body composition (maintaining lean muscle
mass) is the macronutrient protein (PRO). This is due to the fact that turning on protein
synthesis requires consuming dietary PRO. In fact, exercise alone, without protein intake, will
results in a negative protein balance and a catabolic state, instead of an anabolic state when
protein is consumed around resistance exercise (to inhibit muscle loss). Recent evidence is
accumulating that negative energy balance that include diets with higher PRO intakes are
beneficial for weight loss, in that these diets can increase the loss of fat tissue, but reduce the
loss of lean tissue (for review see: (16)). For athletes training at an elite level, the daily
required protein intake is ~1.5 to 1.7 g protein /kg body weight (BW) / day. But during
periods of negative energy balance in elite training athletes aspiring to loose weight, it has
been estimated to raise this daily PRO intake to ~2.3 g/kg BW/day.
However, beyond current daily protein recommendations, there is strong emerging evidence
to suggest that the timing and periodisation of this protein throughout the day, and
specifically near or immediately after exercise training, has a great impact on efficacy of the
protein to increase protein synthesis. In line with this, previous studies have shown that leg
protein uptake was significantly greater when post-exercise protein was taken immediately
after 60min of exercise versus 3 hours later (10). Despite the fact that body builders have
long believed in very large (>40g PRO) post-exercise protein intakes to maximise the anabolic
effect (3), recent data suggests otherwise. A very well conducted dose-response study was
recently published examining the effects of 5 increasing doses of dietary protein on post
resistance exercise muscle protein synthesis (13). This study clearly showed that there
appears to be a maximal effective dose of ~20g of dietary protein for stimulating muscle
anabolism after resistance exercise in ~75kg subjects, which on a per kilogram basis is ~0.3 g
PRO / kg BW. However this study, published last year, opens the door to more questions such
as: is this protein amount the same for endurance athletes or athletes in a negative energy
balance?
Therefore, anecdotal evidence has strongly suggested that to maximise the use of protein
during situations of negative energy balance, one should incorporate ~0.3g/kg BW PRO doses
(~15-25 g, depending on body weight) into each meal, and also in several snacks throughout
the day (~6 to 8 doses per day).
Table 2. Recommendations for loosing weight while maintaining muscle mass
General Tips
• Monitor, monitor, monitor. Take your weight first thing in the morning at least a couple of
times per week, and track it. Incorporate % body fat measurements during critical
competition phases if needed.
Nutrition Tips
• Choose a balanced diet that includes more fruits and veggies, and less processed and snack
foods, emphasizing nutrient-dense foods (not calorically dense foods) - stay away from
excess fat in the diet.
• Only eat until about 80% full, so you don’t overeat. Start your meals with fruits and veggies
and/or salad, then wait at least 15-20min before, having the main part of your meal. For
lunch try eating 1 or 2 pieces of fruit, prior to anything else.
• Eat a good sized breakfast, a medium sized lunch and a smaller dinner. Try and do most of
your “dieting” overnight. There will be times that you will be a little hungry. If you are really
hungry in the evening, only have a small healthy snack prior to bed.
• Slightly increase the amount of protein you eat, compared to carbohydrates, to better
ensure the ability to be at a slight energy deficit without loosing muscle mass (increase daily
protein requirement to ~2 to 2.3 g/kg/day). Incorporation of protein shakes with added fruit
are a great way to achieve this. Emphasize having protein (~15 to 25g) in each meal and
snack throughout the day (6 to 8 doses throughout the day).
• Aim to get your nutrition calories in wholesome food, and your hydration from water. Try
to avoid energy dense liquids (e.g. pop, alcohol).
• Aim to eat your smaller portions on easy training days (more dieting on easier days). On
hard training days emphasize a good sized breakfast and enough recovery nutrition posttraining and dinner – but don’t overeat to feeling stuffed.
• Learn more about the foods (or restaurants) you are eating. Look them up here:
http://caloriecount.about.com/ - by learning more about your foods you can make much
better food choices.
Exercise Tips
• Incorporate more energy expenditure into your training via increased aerobic training, or if
you are already an aerobic athlete – coordinate with your coach to implement more crosstraining to increase caloric expenditure (this might not be a viable option during peaking,
when training volume is decreased)
• Continue or increase resistance exercise with protein recovery immediately afterwards to
help minimize the potential for losing lean muscle mass.
Common Pit-falls of an unchecked and haphazard body composition approach
As with most training principles and life in general, “more is almost never better” – the same
can be said of body weight and body composition. I am sure many coaches are aware, or
have seen, the first hand negative (sometimes dramatic) consequences of athletes who aspire
to be too light all the time.
Figure 1 highlights the ‘approximate’ measured body compositions of elite athletes across
different sports. Nevertheless, beyond this ‘ideal’ or normal height, weight and body
composition, there are always athletes that excel who do not exactly fit within this mould. A
number of athletes (primarily female) are over-mindful of the benefit that low body weight
brings to performance, and many believe that more weight loss is better. In many
circumstances, further weight loss in already lean athletes actually can cause a loss of
muscular power and strength, an increased risk for stress fractures, a decreased immune
function and circumstances leading to female athlete triad (11), which all lead to a decrease
in performance and a compromised healthy situation. One critical group of athletes requiring
special attention are elite adolescent athletes, as 25% of total bone mineral density is laid
down during the teenage years, which can easily be compromised under inadequate energy
balance. Ambitious teenage female athletes appear to be especially susceptible to prolonged
periods of negative energy balance, causing maturation problems and eventually female
athlete triad, primarily caused by a lack of adequate energy intake (11).
A common question is what is the lowest percent of body fat (or essential fat) that males and
females should seek to optimise performance? This is a very difficult question to answer, as
each individual will have a differing metabolism, which will support a differing lowest % body
fat, while still being healthy. Some female athletes can be as low as 8 to 10% body fat and
still have a normal and functioning menstrual cycle and all normal and healthy blood
parameters, while the next elite female athlete might lose her menstrual cycle once she drops
below 15% body fat. Ultimately, an individualised approach needs to be taken and only
extremely low % body fat values should be maintained for short periods of time (<~2
months/year).
Optimising body composition can involve a high degree of emotional and psychological body
image stress, which needs to be addressed by a nutritional expert, along with the coach,
family and sometimes a psychologist, to ensure no disordered eating arises. Table 3
highlights some of the potential ‘red-flag’ characteristics to watch for in athletes striving for
an unhealthy body weight or body image. It is also wise to only undertake body fat and
weight reduction via negative energy balance under the supervision and recommendation of
an expert dietician / physiologist.
Table 3. Dangers and characteristics of athletes trying to reach unhealthy body weights
• Over obsession and year-round desire to constantly reduce body fat and body mass in the
perceived pursuit of enhanced performance(15)
• Previous history of dietary extremes, disordered eating, low vitamin & mineral levels, stress
fractures and inadequate nutrition attributable to overemphasis on low enery intakes in
pursuit of low body mass and body fat level (14)
• Lack of significant/normal changes in physique during maturation and adolescence (1)
• Chronic obsession with energy restriction causing negative effects on training load, health
and long-term growth during maturation (1, 14)
• Practical difficulties in consuming sufficient energy and CHO intake during intense training
periods and busy lifestyles (5)
• Prolonged (>3 continuous months) of menstrual disturbances in female athletes, female
athlete triad, low bone mineral density (14)
• Athletes in constant states of hunger / skipping meals causing irregularities in training load
and quality
• Refusal to accept nutritional advice to gain healthy weight
• Prolonged % body fat values <~6% for males and <~12% for females
• Abnormal eating habits, routines and diets
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