Developing critical and
creative thinking: in
science
The Coalition Government took office on 11 May 2010. This publication was published prior to that
date and may not reflect current government policy. You may choose to use these materials,
however you should also consult the Department for Education website www.education.gov.uk for
updated policy and resources.
Developing critical
and creative thinking:
in science
Developing critical
and creative thinking:
in science
First published in 2008
Ref: 00054-2008DVD-EN
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The National Strategies | Secondary
Developing critical and creative thinking: in science
1
Contents
How to use this study unit
2
Introduction
3
What is critical and creative thinking?
5
But I’m just a science teacher…
9
Strategies for developing critical and creative thinking
13
Appendix 1: Elements of critical and creative thinking in existing materials
32
Appendix 2: Thinking words
36
Appendix 3: Task 12 Full Moon causes car accidents – some prompt questions
37
Appendix 4: Evidence decision maker
38
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Developing critical and creative thinking: in science
How to use this study unit
This study guide offers practical suggestions for you to use in the classroom when
considering the teaching of How science works within the department and classroom.
All the strategies suggested have been tried and tested by teachers in their classrooms.
They draw on both academic research and the experience of practising teachers. You
may have looked at Teaching and learning in secondary school materials (DfES 0423­
2004); although there are similarities with these materials, you will find that this unit
gives specific advice that will be immediately relevant for use in your science lessons.
Your science consultant can help you work through this unit or you could pair with a
colleague who also wishes to enhance the progress of pupils. This way of working will
build capacity within the department and capitalise on peer support.
The unit is structured so that the tasks listed towards the beginning are simple and
quick to implement; more challenging activities come towards the end. It contains case
studies and tasks for you to undertake, and ‘reflection’ activities which will help you
revisit an idea or change your own practice. Practical tips and tasks allow you to
consider the advice or try out new techniques in the classroom. The final page invites
you to reflect on the experience of having tried out new materials and set some
personal targets for the future. You can work through the materials in several ways:
●
●
●
●
●
Start small – choose one class to work with. Ask another teacher or your subject
leader to help by providing a sounding board for your ideas.
Work with your science consultant on developing and planning your approach to
creating a progress culture. After three weeks meet together to review how it is
going. Discuss which strategies have been most effective with one class and plan
how to use this with other classes.
Find another science teacher to pair with and team teach. Design the activities
together and divide the teacher’s role between you.
Work with a group of teachers in the department. Use the unit as a focus for joint
working, meet regularly to share ideas and then review progress after a few weeks.
Identify the sections of the unit that are most appropriate for you and focus on
those.
You may find it helpful to keep a journal of events. For some tasks you may want to
make a video recording of yourself in action so you can make a realistic appraisal of your
performance. You could add this, along with any other notes and planning that you do
as you work your way through the unit, to your continuing professional development
(CPD) portfolio.
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Developing critical and creative thinking: in science
3
Introduction
Recent research1 about pupils’ perceptions and attitudes reveals that many agree that
science is important for society and for making a positive contribution to everyday lives.
However, this same positive view is not reflected in their perceptions of school science.
Many pupils feel that science lessons are content heavy with transmissive pedagogy.
Some felt much of the science curriculum was irrelevant, aimed mainly at preparing
students for a career in scientific research at university. These concerns are echoed by
employers.
‘Science in schools is dull. It bears no resemblance to what goes on in the
real world … Here science is incredibly creative, there’s lots of problem
solving that goes on, and there’s none of that in school science.’
‘Engineers need to be creative and innovative in solving problems.’
Work related learning in science (2006), University of Warwick
‘The key thing is thinking ability and problem solving.’
Leading petrochemical company, Work related learning in science (2006), University of
Warwick
Critical and creative thinking underpin the new programmes of study at Key Stage 3 and
Key Stage 4.
‘By providing rich and varied contexts for pupils to acquire, develop and
apply a broad range of knowledge, understanding and skills the
curriculum should enable pupils to think creatively and critically to solve
problems and to make a difference for the better.’
National Curriculum Handbook p11–12
Pupils who are critical and creative thinkers will be prepared for a rapidly changing
world where they may have to adapt to several careers in a lifetime. Many employers
want people who can see connections, have bright ideas, are innovative and are able to
solve problems. Good critical and creative thinking abilities provide pupils with the tools
needed for independent and life-long learning.
Helping pupils improve the skills of critical and creative thinking cannot be a ‘bolt-on’
activity but should permeate each lesson. Teachers should structure activities that build
on pupils’ abilities, interests and experiences. This creates opportunities for pupils to
develop these skills in a ‘safe’ environment where they feel able to take risks.
1
Different Countries, Same Science Classes: Students’ experiences of school science in their own words by Terry Lyons International Journal of Science
Education Vol. 28, No. 6, 12 May 2006, pp. 591–613; also The Relevance of Science Education Project (ROSE) in England: a summary of findings by E.W
Jenkins and R.G Pell, Centre for Studies in Science and Mathematics Education, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
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Developing critical and creative thinking: in science
The goal of incorporating critical and creative thinking processes into lessons is to
develop individuals who value knowledge and learning. They are able and willing to
think for themselves.
Critical and creative thinking are interrelated and complementary aspects of thinking
that are combinations of abilities, knowledge, values, attitudes, skills and processes.
Critical thinking could be described as reasonable, reflective, responsible and skilful
thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do. A person who thinks critically
can ask appropriate questions, efficiently gather and sort relevant information, reason
logically from this information and come to reliable and trustworthy conclusions about
the world. It is an important part of analytical ability.
Creative thinking is generally considered to be involved with the creation or generation
of ideas, processes, experiences or objects. It is sometimes thought that creative people
are rare and that creativity involves some unusual talents. There are people with
exceptional creative talent who need to be nurtured. However, everyone is capable of
creative thinking in different areas of activity if the conditions are right and they have
the relevant knowledge and skills.
This booklet is one of four study guides that are provided as part of a suite of materials
to increase the number of pupils who reach L6+ at Key Stage 3 and A*/ B at Key Stage 4.
The four booklets are:
●
Talking science pedagogy
●
Creating a progress culture
●
Going for gold: securing attainment
●
Developing critical and creative thinking: in science.
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Developing critical and creative thinking: in science
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What is critical and creative
thinking?
Task 1: What is critical and creative thinking?
With a colleague, or as a department, use the quotes below to help you discuss what
is meant by critical and creative thinking.
The definitions offered are meant only as a stimulus to the discussion.
It is important that the department has an agreement on what these terms mean.
Critical thinking
Critical thinking is
applying well-known
criteria to a problem,
turning the handle and
producing an answer
What do you think?
Critical thinking is when
you set out to find faults
Critical thinking is when
you balance everything
in question to reach a
judgement
Critical thinking is when
you examine the ‘item’ in
question to find its good
and bad points
Creative thinking
Creative thinking
happens when you come
up with something
no-one else has ever
thought about
Creative thinking is
finding a new application
of existing knowledge
and understanding
What do you think?
Creative thinking is about
linking existing ideas
together to form a new
idea
Creative thinking is being
inventive, expressive and
showing imagination as
well as routine skills
le Penseur, Auguste RODIN, S. 1295, bronze, 180 x 98 x 145 cm,
Jerome Manoukian, Musee Rodin, Paris.
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Developing critical and creative thinking: in science
Science teachers are generally more at ease with critical thinking because it is closely
linked with the analysis and evaluation of data. Indeed many people do not associate
science with creativity and creative thinking although scientists:
●
create new products;
●
solve problems;
●
create models to help explain phenomena.
Science is often taught in a very structured and organised way which can leave little
room for creativity.
In the publication All our futures: Creativity, culture and education (DfEE 2001) creativity is
broken down into four characteristics.
●
Thinking or behaving imaginatively.
●
Purposeful imagination – the imaginative activity is aimed at achieving an objective.
●
Originality – pupils have ideas that are new to them.
●
Outcome of value – this is where critical thinking is important as pupils need to
judge the value of what they and others have done.
This is an interesting starting point. While imagination is a key part of creativity, it must
have some purpose – imagination without purpose is not creativity.
Originality in science could be the discovery of a new scientific principle but this is
unlikely in the classroom. However, when teachers help pupils to tackle questions, solve
problems and have ideas new to them this is creative behaviour.
Imaginative activity with a purpose is only creative if it has value in relation to its
purpose. There are many instances of this type of tension in science. Pupils need to
explore the moral and ethical implications of scientific and technological developments.
There is no consensus on a definition of critical thinking. However, Ennis (1987) 2
describes it as ‘reasonable, reflective thinking that is focused on what to believe or do’.
Most definitions suggest the process is:
●
active;
●
persistent and careful, i.e. not jumping to conclusions;
●
about reasoning, and evaluating reasoning.
2
Ennis, R. H. (1987) A Taxonomy of Critical Thinking Dispositions and Abilities
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Task 2: Two sides of the same coin?
Draw two large overlapping circles (Venn diagram).
Creative
Both
Critical
Copy and cut up the characteristics below. Decide if the characteristics belong to pupils
who are thinking creatively, critically or both.
enquiring and analytical mind
proposes new ideas when something
captures their imagination
generalises and identifies patterns
makes connections between different
areas
shows perception and intuition
not satisfied with simple explanations
and readily identifies inconsistencies in
them
thinks logically
ingenuity
thinks divergently
creates ideas for change
needs logical proof
imaginative
visualises a concept
a problem solver
motivated when dealing with abstract
concepts and links them together in
creative ways
uses ordered thinking to enable him/
her to wonder and ask pertinent
questions
a deep desire to understand how and
why things are
determination to process information to
find answers
makes choices
good evaluation skills
judges evidence
seeks validity in reports
produces multiple solutions
responds to serendipity
keen observation skills
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Developing critical and creative thinking: in science
The aim of the exercise is not to find a definitive answer but to think more deeply about
how closely the two are intertwined. While critical thinking and analysis is readily seen
as an important skill in science few teachers will have considered the creative thinking
aspect of this.
Although critical and creative thinking can contribute to problem solving they are not
the same thing. Not all problems call for creative solutions and not all creative thinking
is about solving problems although it needs to have an outcome of value.
The new National Curriculum 2007 places a strong emphasis on the development of
skills for life and work. The framework for personal, learning and thinking skills3 has
been built into the curriculum.
Appendix 1 contains lists of critical and creative thinking skills from three areas:
●
How science works;
●
Secondary National Strategy Leading in learning materials (DfES 0035-2005G);
●
Personal, learning and thinking skills
These are offered in three columns as a possible result of using the approach in task 2.
3
Personal, learning and thinking skills framework (PLTS) has six areas: Independent enquirers, Creative thinkers, Reflective learners, Team workers,
Self-managers and Effective participators. www.qca.org.uk
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Developing critical and creative thinking: in science
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But I’m just a science teacher…
There are many pupils who think that they only need to learn about science if they are
going to be a scientist. For many pupils ‘a scientist’ is still viewed as that narrow
stereotypical model of a mad, male professor in a white coat.
The purpose of How science works is not about teaching pupils to be scientists. It is
about developing flexible problem solvers and good critical and creative thinkers. While
it is important that scientists have these skills they are not exclusive to scientists. If more
pupils understood this distinction then they would see the wider relevance of their
science lessons in developing transferable skills.
Creativity is most effective when it is developed and adopted by the whole department.
Through science many of the skills that underpin creativity can be taught, such as
questioning, challenging, making connections, keeping options open and problem
solving.
The new programmes of study and the attainment targets have a clear focus on the
importance of critical and creative thinking.
‘Experimentation and modelling are used to develop and evaluate
explanations, encouraging critical and creative thought’
Importance of science QCA National Curriculum
Task 3: Explicit or implicit?
Look at a copy of the new science programme of study: Key Stage 34 which includes
the attainment targets.
Highlight in one colour where creative thinking is explicit or implicit. Repeat using a
different colour for critical thinking.
Try this for your Key Stage 4 examination specification.
4
See www.qua.org.uk/curriculum
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Developing critical and creative thinking: in science
Task 4: What happens in my classroom?
Use the list in appendix 1 and find the area with which you are most familiar. Choose
up to three of the skills.
1. Over the next two weeks keep a record of which pupils, in which lessons,
demonstrated these skills.
2. Consider whether the task, context or organisation of the lesson made a
difference.
3. Consider if there were missed opportunities for pupils to develop/demonstrate
these skills.
Building opportunities into lessons for pupils to develop these skills is important. In
many instances this requires some changes in approach rather than rewriting lesson
plans and finding new resources. For example, a typical Year 7 lesson on change of state
sees pupils melting an ice cube, taking the temperature and drawing a graph. Pupils
could be asked to work in pairs to find an explanation for the graph and then to
evaluate each other’s explanations.
Task 5: Identifying the opportunities in a lesson
Use one of your lesson plans or the outline lesson plan below on the medicinal use
of illegal drugs.
Working with a colleague, or as a department, identify opportunities within this
lesson for the development of creative thinking skills and critical thinking skills.
Use appendix 1 to identify which particular aspects of the skills
could be developed.
Devise a learning objective for this lesson that would develop one of the aspects
identified.
Outline lesson plan: medicinal use of illegal drugs
How science works
focus
1b How interpretation of data, using creative thought,
provides evidence to test ideas and develop theories
Breadth of study
context
5e Human health is affected by a range of
environmental and inherited factors, by the use and
misuse of drugs and by medical treatments
Learning objective(s)
To develop a balanced argument for or against the use
of illegal drugs in medical treatment
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Developing critical and creative thinking: in science
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Planned sequence of
activities, including
starter and plenary
Starter
Discussion using a newspaper article or clip from a
media report on use of cannabis as a treatment for MS
Describe the purpose
of each activity in the
teaching sequence
Main activity
Provide pupils with a few suitable websites and/or
articles which will provide a range of evidence about the
use of cannabis
●
Legislation – why is it illegal?
●
Effects of cannabis on the body
●
Statistics on misuse of cannabis
●
●
Research on the use of cannabis in medical
treatments
Statistics on the use of cannabis in medical
treatments
Class to have a quick vote on those for and against. Split
into groups accordingly
Time to prepare arguments with the evidence to back it
up
Debate on the issues
Plenary
Draw an imaginary line the length of the classroom with
the ends of the line representing the two extremes of
the argument. Pupils have to choose and justify their
position on the line based on the ideas presented
Significant or
uncommon resources
Access to ICT facilities and suitable websites that have
been agreed with the ICT technician as available and not
blocked
Any particular advice
or instructions for the
teacher
Maintain a balanced argument throughout
Ensure pupils are familiar with the process of
argumentation and debate5
Other notes
Opportunities to develop critical and creative thinking need to be planned into the
scheme of work. The rest of the guide provides a range of ways for doing this. It may be
as simple as planning in some open questions or increasing the amount of discussion
time. You may decide to introduce some different activities.
5
Osbourne, J. Eduran, S and Simon, S (2004) Ideas, Evidence and Argument in Science (IDEAS) Project, King’s College, London
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Developing critical and creative thinking: in science
Task 6: Identifying the opportunities in your scheme of work
Consider a module of work, either at Key Stage 3 or Key Stage 4, and use the grid
below to see where the individual lessons may be located. If the whole department
is involved in this activity different pairs of teachers can analyse different modules to
give a key stage overview.
Do some of the lessons need to be adjusted so that the students can experience,
practise, improve and engage with the skills associated with critical and creative
thinking?
Lots of …
Creative thinking
Critical thinking
Not much of …
Not much of …
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Lots of …
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Developing critical and creative thinking: in science
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Strategies for developing
critical and creative thinking
Critical and creative thinking is fostered in classrooms that:
●
focus on inquiry teaching;
●
encourage questioning and use open-ended questions to challenge;
●
deal with controversies thereby encouraging discussion, debate and discourse;
●
bring students in to contact with real world problem solving;
●
allow pupils to take risks, make connections and see relationships;
●
allow for quiet reflection;
●
make the most of unexpected events;
●
allow pupils to ’take a lead’;
●
help pupils to develop criteria to make informed judgements;
●
help pupils value different ways of working;
●
give opportunities to explore ideas, keep options open and envisage what might be.
Once opportunities have been identified in lessons, teachers need to identify strategies
that can help foster critical and creative thinking. Examples include:
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
using the vocabulary of critical thinking themselves. For example, asking questions
such as ‘What can you infer about the effects of acid rain on sedimentary rocks?’;
involving students in role-plays or simulations of historical events where people
held conflicting views. For example, the 1926 symposium on continental drift;
organising for ‘structured controversy’. This involves students in discussions and
debates which address more than one side of an issue and require students to back
arguments with evidence and reference to consequences;
encouraging students to recognise when material presented in texts, films etc.
over-simplifies or distorts reality;
asking students to watch television programmes or read newspaper articles which
express different viewpoints, then analyse the relative strengths and weaknesses of
the arguments, including possible motivation of the authors;
asking students questions with multiple answers or several equally correct answers
and discussing if there is a ‘right’ answer;
asking students to solve a real-life problem where there is a possibility of more than
one adequate solution and where several different types of information are
required. For example, construction of a wind farm at a site of special scientific
importance.
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Developing critical and creative thinking: in science
Reflection
Appendix 2 contains a list of thinking words. Which of these
words do you use regularly with pupils? How confident are you that pupils know
what they mean? Are there any words that are key to critical and creative thinking
that you don’t use with pupils?
Most pupils do not have the vocabulary needed for critical and creative thinking or may
use the words without clarity of meaning. Think of all the pupils who have written for
their evaluation: ‘I could of done it better!’
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Developing critical and creative thinking: in science
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Strategies to try
Living graphs and fortune lines
Living graphs and fortune lines relate to graphical representation. Both require pupils to
think about how one variable relates to another and moves them from the world of
plotting points and reading off values.
In ‘Living graphs’ a line graph is presented together with a set of related statements.
Pupils have to position the statements on the graph and give reasons to justify their
decisions. They are encouraged to suggest hypotheses and to give reasons for opinions
or deductions based on what they think the graph represents. It reinforces the
importance of explanation and reasoning and encourages pupils to realise that a variety
of answers may be possible.
‘Fortune lines’ start with a narrative and use the plotting of points as a route to explore
meaning. Pupils are asked to suggest a scale and then to plot the fortunes or emotions
of one or more individuals over a sequence of episodes in time, then to justify their
decisions.
This is an example of a fortune line from a religious education lesson about how Peter,
Mary and Judas might have felt during the death of Jesus.
Very happy
Judas
F
e
e
l
i
n
g
s
Mary
Peter
© Crown copyright 2008
Resurrection
Burial
Crucifixion
Mocking
Trials
Arrest
Judas’ kiss
The last supper
Very unhappy
Events
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Developing critical and creative thinking: in science
Task 7: Living graphs
Reproduce the graph below on A3 sheets. Pupils work in small groups and use the
cards in table A to tell the story for the graph shape below. There are two possible
scenarios to try. The blank cards can be used by pupils to add their own suggestions.
Small groups can then join together to critically assess, evaluate, agree or disagree
with the inferences that have been made.
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
Time
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Table A. These cards should be copied and cut up and attached to the graph at
appropriate points to tell a ‘possible story’ for that graph.
Scenario 1
Scenario 2
The pull of
gravity is much
stronger than
any air
resistance.
There is a sudden
increase in air
resistance.
A dog runs out
in front of the
car.
This section of
road has a
60mph speed
restriction.
The sky diver
reaches a top
speed of
45m/s.
The sky diver
jumps out of the
plane.
It is 8.30 in the
morning.
The driving force
equals the drag
forces.
The sky diver
practises
free-fall
acrobatics.
The first parachute
fails to open
properly.
The driver is late
for work.
The mobile
phone rings.
The sky diver is
travelling at a
constant
speed.
The sky diver has
to avoid a huge
flock of birds.
The traffic light
changes from
red and amber
to green.
There is an
accident on a
busy route.
The wind is
stronger than
predicted.
The sky diver hits
the ground.
The route goes
past a local
nursery school.
Police are at the
side of the road
with a mobile
speed camera.
Task 8: Fortune lines
Read through the story below or use your own version. Ask pupils to plot/chart how
they think the people closely linked to this story felt at each stage.
●
Edward Jenner (in red)
●
James Phipps (in green)
●
Mrs Phipps, the mother of James (in blue).
Pupils can compare and justify their lines with another group.
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Edward Jenner vaccinates against smallpox (1796)
Jenner: Smallpox is stemmed, Robert Thom, American, (Grand Rapids, MI, 1915–1979, Michigan), oil on canvas, 102.87cm x 83.82cm (40½in. x 33in.), Collection of the University of Michigan Health System, Gift of Pfizer inc. UMHS. 23.
Infectious diseases can spread easily from one person to another. Just over 200 years
ago many people, mainly infants and young children, died from a disease called smallpox.
1. Edward Jenner, a British doctor, noticed that milkmaids who often caught a mild
disease called cowpox never seemed to catch the deadly disease smallpox.
2. He decided to do some experiments to test his ideas of how to prevent someone
from catching the deadly smallpox.
3. He took some pus from a scab on the arm of a milkmaid who had cowpox.
4. He scratched this cowpox pus into the arm of a young boy called James Phipps.
5. James caught cowpox, and was ill for a while, but soon he was well again.
6. Jenner then took some smallpox pus from a dying victim of the deadly disease.
7. The doctor then scratched this deadly pus into the arm of James Phipps.
8. James did not catch the deadly smallpox disease.
9. Jenner was the first person to discover that people can be protected from one
deadly disease by vaccinating them with germs from another related disease that
is not deadly.
10. His work saved many lives and led others to develop vaccines.
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Developing critical and creative thinking: in science
Feelings
19
Time
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Role-play and debate
Teachers can foster critical and creative thinking by involving students in role-play or
simulations of historical events where people held conflicting views. In this example, the
Scopes trial in 1925 debated the issues around teaching only creationism as an
explanation for the existence of life on Earth.
This structured controversy will involve students in discussions and debates which
tackle more than one side of an issue and requires them to back arguments with
evidence and reference to consequences. There is a wealth of research materials
available on the Internet to provide the background to the trial. A book about the trial,
Inherit the Wind by Jerome Lawrence and Robert Edwin Lee, was made into a film of the
same name in 1960. The DVD of the film is readily available and could be used as a
stimulus for discussion about the issues raised.
Task 9: Role-play and debate
Compare the two lesson plans for the Scopes trial below.
How could you incorporate more critical or creative thinking into lesson 1?
What would you need to do to ensure that lesson 2 was successful?
Sample lesson plan 1: The Scopes trial
Starter activity
●
●
The teacher provides an explanation of the background to the Scopes trial in 1925.
Pupils are given a brief written background on the trial. There are several websites
with student-friendly information:
www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/scopes/evolut.htm
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www.bradburyac.mistral.co.uk/tennesse.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scopes_Trial
http://xroads.virginia.edu/~ug97/inherit/1925home.html
●
Pupils read through the information and answer the following questions.
–
–
–
–
Where and when did the Scopes trial take place?
Who was John Scopes?
What was the trial about?
Who were the main opponents in the trial?
Main activity
●
●
●
Ask pupils to feed back their answers to the set questions.
Explain that the main task is to write a brief paragraph about the reason for the trial,
the key events of the trial and the outcome of the trial.
Ask a few of the students to read out one of the paragraphs.
Plenary activity
●
Remind pupils of the key arguments of the trial and ask the following questions.
–
–
–
–
What was the verdict at the end of the trial?
What happened to William Jennings Bryan shortly after the trial finished?
What happened to the verdict a year later?
Do you agree with the verdict? Explain your answer.
Sample lesson plan 2: The Scopes trial
Starter activity
●
●
●
Watch selected clips from the DVD Inherit the Wind (MGM, 1960, Spencer Tracy).
This is a black and white film readily available at a budget price.
Ask pupils to work in pairs to write down three key points from the clips they have
watched.
Pupils now share these key points with another pair. Are there points of agreement?
What are the differences? Can they explain why the specific key points were
selected?
Main activity
●
●
Provide pupils with a brief written background on the trial (see lesson plan 1 above).
Divide the class into three groups. Explain that their task will be to role-play what
arguments might be used if a similar trial were held today. The emphasis should be
on using valid scientific arguments, countering arguments from the opposing view
and explaining why each argument was selected. One group will enact the opening
statements from each side; a second group will enact questions the prosecution and
defence teams might ask of their opponents. The final group should prepare and
enact the closing arguments to support each side of the case. Pupils representing
the prosecution and defence can meet briefly to agree on the arguments/points
they would make in each section of the trial.
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21
Each group enacts their section of the trial.
Plenary activity
●
●
●
Pupils work in pairs to select the arguments for and against evolution which they
believe are the strongest arguments used in the mock trial.
Pupils share these arguments with another pair and then another group of four
students.
Take feedback from each group of four or eight and ask them to justify their
selection of the strongest arguments.
As well as consulting your English and humanities departments, help for setting up a
debate can be found at:
www.planet-science.com/sciteach/debating/index.html
www.wsjclassroomedition.com/pdfs/wkst_debate.pdf
Concept cartoons TM
Concept cartoons TM are cartoon-style drawings that offer a range of viewpoints about
the science in everyday situations. This new way of looking at a situation can make it
problematic and provide a stimulus for discussion and developing ideas further.
The faster we go
the more energy
the car uses.
The car
uses fuel, not
energy.
The wheels
make energy
from the fuel.
They are available from the Association for Science Education or from the Internet
(www.conceptcartoons.com) and can be used or adapted in a variety of ways. For
example, asking pupils to devise their own cartoons can stimulate creative thinking;
discussing alternative viewpoints can develop critical thinking.
Disassemble
If we take a question like ‘How many uses can you think of for a biro?’ most people
would think of perhaps four or five. If we disassemble the biro into its constituent parts,
or characteristics, and think of uses for each part then the possibilities are increased.
Examples might include:
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hollow tube – straw for drinking; musical instrument; pea shooter; walkway in ant
farm and so on;
●
spring – conductor in a circuit; piece of jewellery; fixing to hold paper together;
unwound and used to clean small pores in shower heads and so on;
●
transparent case – glue together and make a window for a doll’s house; insert
light-emitting diodes to make a Christmas decoration; aquarium for a pet water flea
and so on.
●
Task 10: Disassembling
Model the process for pupils. Let them try one of the following.
●
Make ‘flubber’ 6 using borax and PVA glue.
●
Make ‘slime’. 7
●
Grow crystals.
Use disassembling to think about creative uses for the product.
Link this to the discovery of celluloid which was originally used for replacing ivory in the
production of billiard balls and then was found to have many other applications.
Another example is the way that ‘sticky notes’ were created. 4 5
Using thinking grids and organisers
There are many examples of concept maps, mind maps and graphic organisers that can
be used to structure pupils' critical and creative thought processes. A few examples are
given below.
a) Morphological analysis
Features are listed as column headings and variations are listed in the columns. For
example, this table lists some features of a torch and identifies some possible variations.
Power supply
Bulb type
Light intensity
Size
Battery
Halogen
Low
Hand held – small
Mains/
rechargeable
Energy saving
Medium
Medium
Coloured
High
Large
Fuel cell
Variable
Combinations are then selected from each column (randomly or otherwise) to create a
new mixture of components which pupils then evaluate or think of a purpose for.
For example, a large torch that uses a fuel cell, energy saving bulb and variable light
intensity could be used in the African bush.
Pupils could use this technique when designing an organism to live on another planet.
6
5
Instructions for making Flubber can be found at www.muddlepuddle.co.uk/Science/Kitchenscience.htm
Instructions for making Slime can be found at www.nclark.net/ChemistryRecipes.pdf
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b) PMI analysis
Pupils discuss and agree the positives, minuses and interesting aspects about an object,
e.g. glass umbrella; wooden coffee mug or issue e.g. human cloning; staging the
Olympics on the Moon in 2200.
Positives
Minuses
Interesting aspects
c) Similarities and differences
Pupils discuss and agree the similarities and differences between examples such as:
●
an electric circuit and a flowing river (to decide if it is a good model/analogy).
●
a euglena, plant and animal cells (to decide what euglena should be classified as).
●
natural selection, artificial selection and genetic modification.
This could be investigated using a Venn diagram or organiser similar to the one below.
Different
Different
Same
River
Circuit
d) SWOT analysis
Pupils discuss the strengths, opportunities, weaknesses or threats of a scientific
development or issue, for example, irradiated food.
Strengths
Opportunities
Weaknesses
Threats
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e) Risks, benefits, consequences grid
Pupils discuss the risks, benefits and consequences of a scientific development or issue,
for example, organ transplantation, space exploration or stem cell technology.
Risks
Benefits
Consequences
Task 11: Use a ‘thinking’ grid
Decide on an appropriate grid to use with one of your classes. If they have not used
one before model the process using a simple everyday context.
At the end of the lesson discuss with pupils whether they found this a useful tool or
not, and why.
Build up a range of these grids so that pupils can select the most appropriate one for
their needs.
Top tip
Talk to other departments to see what types of grids they already use that pupils
could apply to science lessons.
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Recognising the pitfalls
The table below outlines a few common pitfalls on the way to becoming a good critical
thinker.
Pitfall
Definition
Example
Tip
Selective thinking
and bias
Tend to only take
notice of things that
confirm your belief
Pupils only look for
sources of evidence
that confirm their
viewpoint or
prediction
Evaluate all evidence
before making a
judgement
Ignorance
Lack of background
knowledge to make
an informed
judgement
Making judgements
about issues such as
GM crops on limited
information and
understanding
Make appropriate
knowledge available
Emotive subject
Use of words
intentionally to
arouse feelings
A discussion on
animal
experimentation
Learn to recognise
and distinguish the
emotive content of
language
False implication
Language that is
clear and accurate
but actually suggests
something false
Dairy products
express fat content as
a percentage of
weight, not calories:
for example, 2% low
fat milk (weight)
becomes 31% (when
expressed as a
percentage of
calories)
Make pupils aware of
how statistics can be
presented in a biased
way
Biased reporting
Published research
that only reports
positive and not
negative effects
An advert that states
that research shows
the product had
beneficial effects on
health but not other
research that shows
no benefit from the
same product
Check for other
research evidence
Articles that lack
detail but are cleverly
phrased or written by
‘experts’
Accepting ideas and
evidence written by
‘scientists’ as true
Evaluate the logic in
the argument
presented and how
different scientists
often disagree
Making
assumptions
© Crown copyright 2008
Check how well the
‘positive’ research
was conducted
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Task 12: Developing your critical thinking
Work with a colleague on the article below. Critically evaluate what has been
written. Are any of the pitfalls present?
Discuss how you would model the process for pupils.
Full Moon causes car accidents
Car accidents occur 14% more often on
average during a full Moon than a new
Moon according to a study of three
million car policies by a well known
insurance company.
The data show a rise in all types of
accidents involving single and multiple
cars, the company said in a press release
today. The next full Moon will be
tomorrow night.
‘We know the Moon is a strong source of
energy as it affects the tides and weather
patterns but we are surprised by this
bizarre trend,’ Stuart Henfield, head of
car insurance at this company, said today.
The company, which an international
Bank agreed to buy in June, speculated
that Eastern philosophical concepts of
yin and yang may explain the accident
rate. It cited feng shui expert Pauline Yip,
saying that the full Moon radiates more
of the Sun’s yang energy onto the Earth
making people aggressive and impatient.
The insurer said it will not be changing
its underwriting criteria to take the full
Moon into account.
Appendix 3 contains some comments about the article that you might like to refer to.
After modelling the process for pupils, give different groups articles to read and critically
evaluate and list the questions they would need to ask.
Appendix 4 contains an ‘evidence decision maker’ that pupils might find helpful in the
task.
Task 13: Helping pupils to progress
The grid below shows some steps in developing reasoning and evaluation skills and
suggests activities to help pupils progress. Read this and then work with a colleague
to complete the similar sheet for developing creative thinking on p 31.
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State a reason for an
opinion or action
Give reasons for
opinions and
actions
Draw inferences
and deductions
Getting started
Thinking skill
The students may well
state that we must find
alternative sources of
energy
Example: In the discussion
on the use of energy it is
widely accepted that the
world cannot carry on
using fossil fuels in the way
we have in the past
State one or two relevant
points
Example: Show the
students some ordinary
batteries and some
rechargeable batteries and
ask them which they would
choose for a remote control
Reasoning
Thinking area
Example: Ask the student
to tell you about the
relative likely costs of the
alternative sources of
energy and their effect on
the environment
Ask the student to tell
you what they thought
about when they
considered their chosen
points
Example: Ask the student
to complete the sentence
‘I chose this type of
battery for this particular
use because …’
Ask the student to tell
you what they
considered in reaching
their opinion
Activity to move
student on
Can select several
relevant points and
explain why they
have been chosen
Explain why they
have reached that
opinion or carried
out their action
On the way
Example: Ask the student to now
carry out the task of finding
alternative energy sources for a
range of different countries with
very different environments
Using the student’s inference/
deduction discuss how the data
could be used to come to an
alternative view
Example: Ask the student to
explain to you what data they
thought they needed to answer
the question ‘Are rechargeable
batteries better for the
environment?’, where they found
it and what they did with it to
come to their final decision
Ask the student to talk you
through the steps they took in
reaching their opinion
Activity to move student on
Ways to make progress in the thinking areas of reasoning and evaluation
Can propose
several alternative
viewpoints each of
which they can
defend
Explain the process
of reaching their
opinion or carrying
out their action
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State a piece of evidence
to support their
judgement
Make informed
judgements and
decisions
Explain what
they think
Getting started
Thinking skill
Example: In a discussion
about ways of getting to
school a student may say
that 4x4 vehicles should be
banned because they
pollute the atmosphere
Say what they think with
a reason
Example: In discussions
about washing up liquids
the student says that brand
X is used at home because
the adverts support it
Reasoning
Thinking area
Example: Ask the student
to compare the polluting
effect of a 4x4 engine to
an ordinary car engine.
Then ask about the fuel
consumption of different
forms of transport
Ask the student to
defend their idea using
‘because’
Example: Ask the student
to talk about the cost of
the product and its
cleaning effect
Ask the student to tell
you how they
prioritised in reaching
their decision
Activity to move
student on
Say what they think
with reasons and by
using supportive
evidence
Explain, using at
least two pieces of
supportive
evidence, why they
have reached the
judgement
On the way
Example: Ask the students to
compare the wider implications
of using different forms of
transport to get to school in
addition to pollution, e.g. social
health, environmental, economic
Ask the student to tell you
about the ‘accepted ideas’ they
have considered in building up
their evidence
Example: Ask the student to give
weightings to each piece of the
decision making process, i.e. cost,
effectiveness, effect on
environment, etc.
Using the student’s evidence
ask her/him to explain how
important each piece is
Activity to move student on
Use a wider
background
knowledge to say
what they think
and explain their
choice of
supportive
evidence
Explain clearly,
using all the pros
and cons, how they
have weighed up
the evidence and
arrived at their
judgement
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Can say, simply, how the
information has been of
value
Evaluate
information
Judge the value
of what they
read, hear and do
Getting started
Thinking skill
Example: In discussions
about alternative energy
resources the student is
able to state one reason in
favour of wind farms and
one against
Able to state one reason
in favour and one reason
against
Example: A student could
comment on how useful
they found the new food
labelling systems.
Evaluation
Thinking area
Example: Ask the student
to list the desired
requirements of an
alternative energy source
and then compare the
characteristics of the
wind farm approach to
that list
Ask the student to tell
you how they would
prioritise their reasons
against the given
criteria
Example: Ask the student
to tell you how the
information could be of
value to someone trying
to cut down on their salt
intake
Ask the student to
explain what they
considered in deciding
whether the
information had some
use
Activity to move
student on
Able to compare
the ‘item’ to a set of
given criteria and to
judge its worth
Ask the student to tell
you a number of
‘tests’ they could
apply to help decide if
the information is of
any value
Can explain why
the information is
of some value in the
particular case
Example: Ask the
student to put the
benefits of the wind
farm in an order of
importance in relation
to the problem to be
solved
Ask the student to tell
you how they could
rank and weigh any
information/opinions
Example: Ask the
student to tell you how
they would convince an
overweight relative,
who is trying to lose
weight, of the value of
these new labels
Activity to move
student on
On the way
Able to explain how they
have weighted different
parts of the evidence in
order to reach their
judgement
Can apply a range of criteria
such as reliable/valid/
accurate in order to judge
the value of the information
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Getting started
State one criterion the
work/idea has to meet
Thinking skill
Develop criteria
for judging the
value of work or
ideas
Example: Ask the
students to identify
further criteria they could
use to assess the models/
analogies others devised
to explain
chromatography.
Ask the student to tell
you how they would
judge whether the
work/idea was of any
use
Activity to move
student on
Ask the student to talk
you through how they
might decide on the
most important
criteria to choose
Able to decide on
two or more criteria
in order to judge
the value of the
work/idea
Example: Ask the
student to decide if the
criteria could be
applied to other
models and analogies
and whether this might
influence their decision.
Activity to move
student on
On the way
Able to choose from a range
of criteria the most suitable
to apply when judging the
value of the work/idea
Becoming secure
(Copyright Essex CC) shows one interpretation of the different levels of engagement with the thinking skills, championed by the National Strategy Leading
in learning project. This document also suggests some ways in which the students might be moved on in their development.
Example: Students identitfy
one criterion they will use
to assess the model/
analogy they devised to
explain chromatography.
Evaluation
Thinking area
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Having been given an
idea can extend it
simply in the same
context
Can suggest a simple
relationship between
‘items’ studied in
familiar contexts
Able to propose a
novel approach or
interpretation
Generate and extend
ideas
Suggest hypotheses
Apply imagination
Can suggest one
alternative
Getting started
Thinking skill
Look for alternative
innovative outcomes
Creative thinking
Thinking area
Table for Task 13
Activity to move
pupil on
Able to explain an
alternative outcome
Able to link several
novel approaches or
interpretations in
regard to the situation
Able to consider the
possible consequences
of alternative
outcomes
Able to construct a
linked set of
approaches to
generate an alternative
framework for
consideration
Able to use
background
knowledge and
understanding to
propose relationships
between ‘items’ in new
situations
Able to explain why
they think a
relationship may exist
between the ‘items’
being studied in range
of contexts
Becoming secure
Able to apply several
connected ideas into a
new context
Activity to move
pupil on
Able to apply an idea
into a new context
On the way
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Appendix 1:
Elements of critical and creative thinking in existing
materials
The table below suggests where aspects of critical and creative thinking occur in How
science works, Leading in learning and the Personal, learning and thinking skills
framework. This table also enables you to see links between the three aspects.
All schools are teaching How science works as part of the Key Stage 4 curriculum. Some
schools are familiar with thinking skills from the previous National Curriculum or
Leading in learning. Other schools might want to engage with the new Personal,
learning and thinking skills framework. It is expected that departments select the one
they are most familiar with or would like to develop for task 5.
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Five thinking skills
from National
Curriculum 2000
Handbook and
used in
Secondary
National Strategy
Leading in
learning materials
How science works
●
●
●
●
●
●
Suggest
hypotheses
Generate and
extend ideas
Look for
alternative
innovative
outcomes
Apply imagination
Generation of
ideas
Questioning
Creative thinking
Causation
●
●
Correlation
Design of task
Hypothesis/prediction
Technical feasibility/ethics
●
●
●
●
Validity
●
●
Pose and define problems
Plan what to do and how to research
Ask relevant questions
Draw inferences and deductions
Analyse part/whole relationships
Compare and contrast
Sort and classify
●
●
●
●
●
●
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●
●
●
●
Predict outcomes and anticipate consequences
●
●
Test conclusions and improve ideas
●
Locate and collect
relevant information
Sequence
Give reasons for opinions
and actions
Explain what they think
Make informed
judgements and decisions
Judge the value of what
they read, hear and do
Evaluate information
Risk analysis
●
●
Reliability
●
●
Develop criteria for judging the value of work or
ideas
Accuracy
●
Argument
●
●
Evaluation of evidence
●
Application of evidence
●
Peer review by individuals
and science community
Analysis
●
Explanation of evidence
Research and data
collection
Questioning
●
●
●
Modelling
Theories
Critical thinking
●
●
Both creative and critical thinking
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Personal, learning
and thinking skills
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●
●
●
●
Seek out
challenges or new
responsibilities
and show
flexibility when
priorities change
Connect own and
others’ ideas and
experiences in
inventive ways
Ask questions to
extend their
thinking
Generate ideas
and explore
possibilities
Creative thinking
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
Adapt behaviour to suit different roles and situations
Reach agreements, managing discussions to
achieve results
Co-operate with others to work towards common
goals
Communicate their learning in relevant ways for
different audiences
Evaluate experiences and learning to inform future
progress
Adapt ideas as circumstances change assess
themselves and others, identifying opportunities
and achievements
Question own and others’ assumptions, try out
alternatives or new solutions and follow ideas
through
Explore issues, events or problems from different
perspectives and consider the influence of
circumstances, beliefs and feelings on decisions
and events
Plan and carry out research, appreciating the
consequences of decisions
Identify questions to answer and problems to
resolve
Both creative and critical thinking
●
●
●
●
●
Invite feedback and deal
positively with praise,
setbacks and criticism
Review progress, acting
on the outcomes
Set goals with success
criteria for their
development and work
Support conclusions using
reasoned arguments and
evidence
Analyse and evaluate
information, judging its
relevance and value
Critical thinking
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© Crown copyright 2008
Creative thinking
© Crown copyright 2008
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
Act as an advocate for views and beliefs that may
differ from their own
Try to influence others, negotiating and balancing
diverse views to reach workable solutions
Identify improvements that would benefit others
as well as themselves
Propose practical ways forward, breaking these
down into manageable steps
Present a persuasive case for action
Discuss issues of concern, seeking resolution where
needed
Respond positively to change, seeking advice and
support when needed
Deal with competing pressures, including personal
and work-related demands
Anticipate, take and manage risks
●
●
Organise time and resources, prioritising actions
Work towards goals, showing initiative,
commitment and perseverance
Provide constructive support and feedback to
others
Take responsibility, showing confidence in
themselves and their contribution
Show fairness and consideration to others
●
●
●
●
●
Both creative and critical thinking
Critical thinking
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Appendix 2:
Thinking words
adapt
examine
realisation
analogy
experience
recall
apply
experiment
recognise
assess
explain
reconstruct
assumption
extrapolate
refine
attitude
formulate
reflect
belief
hypothesise
reorganise
clarify
identify
response
classify
image
scan
combine
imagine
sequence
compare
implement
short-term memory
compose
interpret
skim
consider
interrelate
specification
context
judge
stereotype
contradict(ion)
justify
stimulus/stimulate
contrast
juxtapose
structure
convert
link
summarise
decide
long-term memory
symbol
decipher
meaning
synthesise
decode
metaphor
transform
define
model
translate
design
negotiate
trigger
develop
organise
visualise
differentiate
paraphrase
distinguish
plan
evaluate
predict
evidence
prioritise
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Appendix 3:
Task 12 Full Moon causes car accidents – some
prompt questions
●
There is only one explanation given for the ‘data’.
●
A full Moon is bright which would suggest better visibility.
●
Is this a single study?
●
How was it designed?
●
●
●
Was it a short-term study which could give skewed results? (For example, if the full
Moon occurred at a weekend.)
Why didn’t the company take the results seriously?
What is a ‘study of three million policies’? How many of them had accident claims?
How many were at night? How many of those at night were on nights with a full
Moon? How many accidents were there?
●
Was any account taken of other weather conditions?
●
Is it a replicable study?
●
Incorrect science – the Moon is NOT a strong source of energy.
●
If you believe in the effects of the Moon or yin and yang then this study confirms
your beliefs.
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Appendix 4:
Evidence decision maker
This is a simple framework to help pupils think about the reliability of a piece of research
or article. Pupils select either A, B or C for each question and then use the list below to
make their decision.
●
●
●
Mainly As indicates good source of data.
Mainly Bs indicates the source should be used cautiously and only when it
accompanies other ‘A’ sources of data.
Mainly Cs indicates the source should not be considered as evidence.
A
B
C
Is the evidence
based on
accepted
scientific
knowledge?
Data has clear
links to widely
accepted
scientific thinking
or knowledge
Data has some
links to scientific
thinking or
knowledge
Data has weak or
no links to
scientific thinking
or knowledge
Are other sources
of data/studies
used or referred
to?
There are clear
links between the
sources of data.
Other sources of
data are based on
accepted
scientific thinking;
other sources are
credible
Conclusions or
assumptions are
drawn from weak
or controversial
data
Assumptions
have been
plucked from
‘thin air’ when
linking the
sources of data.
Other sources
may represent an
idiosyncratic/
minority view
How much of the
evidence is based
on opinion?
Very little – any
opinions are
clearly identified
as such
Some opinions
are used in the
evidence and
could be taken as
‘facts’
Most – there is no
guidance as to
whether these
opinions are held
by large or small
numbers of
people
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If statistics/graphs
are used as part of
the evidence …
A
B
C
Statistics are easy
to verify
Statistics sound
plausible but
need to be
checked out
Statistics cannot
be verified and
appear to be a
work of fiction
Scales on the
graphs could
cause over or
underestimation
Graphs are
meaningless or
based on
incorrect data
Graphs do not
have misleading
scales
39
Is the evidence
based on proper
experimental
procedure? (e.g.
large sample size,
sufficiently long
period of study)
Results from
experiments are
valid and reliable,
e.g. carried out by
respected
scientists/
organisations
Some concerns
about the way the
experiment was
carried out which
means that the
results may not
be fully reliable or
valid
No, or weak,
experimental
evidence
Is the information
relevant to the
original question
or theory?
The information is
very relevant
There are some
relevant aspects
but I need to find
out more to be
sure
The information is
interesting but
not really relevant
Do the inferences
drawn link to the
observations?
The inferences
drawn clearly link
to the
observations
The inferences
drawn need to be
checked further
The inferences are
questionable
– other inferences
could be drawn
Is the author of
the article
credible?
Yes – definitely
Possibly but I
need to check to
find out more
about them
Unlikely
Is the evidence
the original
research?
Yes – it may be a
summary
No – but it
contains extracts
from the original
research
No – newspaper
or other
individual’s
interpretation
© Crown copyright 2008
00054-2008DVD-EN
40
The National Strategies | Secondary
Developing critical and creative thinking: in science
Acknowledgements Page 5, le Penseur, Auguste RODIN S. 1295, bronze, 180 X 98 X 145 cm, Jerome Manoukian, Musee Rodin, Paris.
Page 18, Jenner: Smallpox is stemmed, Robert Thom, American, (Grand Rapids, MI, 1915
–1979, Michigan), oil on canvas, 102.87 cm x 83.82 cm (40 ½ in. x 33 in.), Collection of the University of Michigan Health System, Gift of Pfizer inc. UMHS.23.
Page 27 – 30, Ways to make progress in the thinking areas of reasoning and evaluation.
© Essex County Council. Used with kind permission.
00054-2008DVD-EN
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Audience: Science subject leaders, teachers of
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Date of issue: 01-2008
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