.
Otto Demus
"
THE
SAN
X 143-)
LM O' S A I C S O. F
MARCO
IN
VENICE
I
The Eleventh and Twelfth
Centuries
Volume One: Text
With a Contribution
by Rudolf M. Kloos
Published for Dumbarton
THE
UNIVERSITY
CHICAGO
Oaks. Washington. D. C.
OF CHICAGO
AND
LONDON
PRESS
-
..--v
I
21
The Paleography
of the I11SCriptio11Sof San Marco
Rudolph M. Kloos
The epigraphic assessment of the mosaic inscriptions of San Marco up to about 1200 required
extensive" preliminary work, The inscriptions
were first surveved and divided into broad
groups according to their" inception and their
texts then deciphered and transcribed. The most
arduous task was to separate individual hands and
workshops and to determine their forms and stylistic traits while at the same time excluding later
restorations. This work was made especially difficult by the lack of any previous technical analysis. by the frequent necessity of using wholly
inadequate photographs. and by the very limited
time available for examination in situ,'
Apart from these external considerations. the
material itself was not easy to interpret. Epigraphy is still not sufficiently developed as a scholarly discipline to provide ready answers. Studies
of this kind are extremely rare;' almost nothing
has been written on ItaÜan inscriptions of the
period in question or in the specialized field of
mosaic inscri ptions. 3
Finally. a relatively wide latitude in dating has
to be accepted. It did not seem warranted to date
the inscriptions more closely than within about a
generation. since only a few fragments of a dated
mosaic inscription could be found as comparative
material for one of the groups. In all other cases it
was necessary to fall back on comparisons with
different kinds of material or on chronological
relationships.
Indeed. the lack of comparable mosaic inscriptions is striking; neither Roman" nor Sicilian"
mosaics of the twelfth century show any epi""t) graphic connections with those of Venice and its
r:I\
Adriatic neighbors. Venice was strongly oriented
instead toward Apulia. France. and Germany.
The most important elements permitting us to
distinguish an epigraphic script and determine the
stage of its development are the forms of the
letters used and the treatment of their various
parts. During the twelfth century. the number of
forms was increased steadily by the readoption of
uncials and other older forms, such as the square
C. and by the further development of pseudouncials, but also by various formal changes in the
capitals themselves. In the narrower sense of the
term. the style of the letters-whose
transformations we shall follow through the course of a
century-is determined by the manner in which
they are executed. Our discussion will deal with
shafts and crossbars (the vertical and horizontal
elements of the letters), with the thickening of
strokes. and with spurs and tails." The technical
execution of the inscriptions. whether with one
or several rows of tesserae, can only generally be
indicated: the particular kind of mosaic stone used
could be determined only in a few cases and thus
was not taken into consideration.
It was not possible in this study to reprint the
texts of the inscriptions; the interested reader is
referred to the available publications."
The Main Portal
The representations of the Madonna with the
apostles and the four evangelists are accompanied
by inscribed names," a running horizontal inscription, and an inscription covering the arches
over the niches of the four evangelists. The nomen
sacrum ofMary as well as the names of the apostles
C H APT
E R
Peter and Paul are composed in Greek, the rest in
Latin.
.
The Greek inscriptions are the work of two
different hands, the one for Mary apparently related to that for Saint Paul. Both scripts are composed of thin lines, with the strokes of the letters
formed by only one row of stones; but Saint
Peter's inscription is executed in larger stones
than those for Mary and Paul. In the latter two,
the aspiration of the article and the accent on AfIOC
are indicated by clearly recognizable symbols,
only fragments of which have been preserved in
the inscription for Peter. A and IT are distinctly
different in the two scripts. In the inscription for
Peter, an internal sigma is used for AfIOC and a
final sigma only for the name; Paul's inscription
instead shows the final sigma in both words. The
abbreviation signs over the two parts of the nomen
sacrum MHP ay consist of wavy lines, such as are
used for nomina saera in most of the Latin inscriptions as well. The sign over ay shows the spurs
usual in these abbreviation marks; the rest of the
script is executed without spurs. Apart from
some minor tampering due to restoration, these
inscriptions are well preserved. It is difficult to
classify them and the succeeding Latin inscriptions, which are also written in thin line, because
distinguishing changes in style can hardly be discerned in them. Nevertheless, there is much evidence that this type of Greek script belongs to a
period from the eleventh to thirteenth centuries."
Whether the two hands are contemporaneous
seems not to be ascertainable; the inscription for
Saint Peter may perhaps be later.
The Greek nomen sacrum of the Madonna, like
that of Christ, was commonly taken over in Latin
regions as an integral pictorial component. It is
unusual, on the other hand, to find the names of
the apostles written in Greek. We can do no more
than speculate whether a Greek master first was
called in to execute the figures of Mary and the
apostles Peter and Paul, furnished them with the
sort of inscription he was accustomed to, and
~hen turned to Latin helpers to carry out the Latin
Inscriptions.
The Latin inscriptions for the apostles Philip,
Simon, James, Andrew, Thomas, and Bartholomew were written by a Latin hand, also in thin
line with single rows of stones. 10 The abbreviation signs over ses are scroll-shaped, resembling
the diplomatic abbreviation signs used in German
imperial documents. In the inscription for ThoMGHoBibliothek
Nachlaß Bo Bischoff
T WEN
T Y-0
N .I::.
mas, this abbreviation, which is rendered here
merely with an S, as it is for Andrew, is indicated
by a simple line." The letters are furnished with
spurs throughout.
A and V are sometimes
pointed and sometimes blunt; D, found only
once, has an open, uncial form; E occurs both as a
capital and as an uncial; M usually becomes
broader toward the base and has a long middle
part; R has an almost straight tail. There are a few
ligatures and monograms.
This script, with its thin strokes and straight
lines, belongs to a decidedly earlier stage of development than that of the apse mosaics: the letter
forms, although not very typical, can be placed in
the last third of the eleventh century.
The inscriptions in the lower zone yield complex findings that are not easy to interpret.
The beginning of the horizontal inscription,
+ SPONSA, is a restoration of the later twelfth century and should be disregarded. The remainder of
the text, as well as the inscriptions on the arches
over the evangelist niches and the inscribed
names of the evangelists, was written by two
different hands fairly close together in time. The
earlier of the two is probably responsible for the
text of the horizontal inscription to the right of
the portal, starting with QVOS; for the beginning
of the inscription on the first arch, above Matthew, + ECClESIAE; for the entire text of the third
arch, above Luke; and for that of the fourth arch,
with the exception of the beginning SONAT ET M-.
The inscribed names of Luke and John are probably also attributable to this hand. at least in their
conception, although the inscription for Luke
appears to have been wholly remade at a later
time.
The second. later hand was responsible for the
portion of the horizontal inscription beginning
with DEO and for the texts of the inscriptions on
the arches above Matthew and Mark, except for
the initial + ECClESIAE on the first arch, which is
by the earlier hand. The name inscriptions for
Matthew and Mark were probably also created
by the later hand, although the attribution is disputable since elements of both hands seem to be
present. It is equally uncertain whether the part of
the text SONAT ET M- on the fourth arch belongs to
this hand; more probably it is ascribable to a later
restoration.
The earlier of these two scripts resembles the
Latin hand of the upper zone, especially in the use
of a scroll-shaped abbreviation sign. The shafts of
1. H t:.
~
t\ L .1:. U '-' I\. ~:\. r'
i'
1.
\...J
i
the letters have a club-like 'enlargement at the end,
as is sometimes found in eleventh-century
inscriptions,12 and the single row of tesserae in the
bows has also been broadened by the addition of a
second.
The script is distinguished by a striking decorative feature: thorn-like projections are placed at
the onset of the uncial D, the junction of the
uncial M, and the tail of the Q and R. In addition,
capital A is broad at the top and appears together
with the early form of pseudo-uncial A; 0 is
found in both capital and uncial form, as is true of
E, M, and V. The highly characteristic broad
character of this careful hand belongs to a type
common from the second half of the eleventh
century to the early twelfth." Its thorn-like projections already appear as decorative elements in
manuscript writing about the middle of the
eleventh century. U Epigraphic examples of this
type of script may be seen in the mid-eleventhcentury epitaph of a certain Hubert in Reims, 15an
inscription of about 1068 in Saint Savignien in
Sens," the epitaph of Eurinus of 1077 in SaintPierre in Lagny, 17and the tomb of King Rudolf
(d. 1080) in Merseburg."
Two parallels are of particular interest. The
sacristan of Saint-Jean-de-Montierneuf
in Poitiers (d. 1097), whose epitaph is comparable in its
general style and its combination of splayed capitals and uncial M to the script described here, was
one of the monks from Cluny who founded the
abbey, but as the epitaph states, he was natione
Vetletus.l'· Thus we find not only an epigraphic
but a personal connection as well.
The clearest parallel to our script is to be found
on a small epitaph of gray marble in San Marco
itself, recessed in the wall of the Cappella di
Sant'Isidoro to the right of the altar. The kinship
of its writing to that of the mosaic has already
been noted." The epitaph is for a child who died
at the age of eight days and about whom we learn
only that its parents were wealthy. The script is
lightly engraved and is in an excellent state of
preservation. Besides the broad hand of both,
they are almost identical in their simultaneous use
of capital A capped with a bar and uncial A and in
the use of both capital and uncial D, E, and M; in
both, M appears as a straight and splayed capital
and as an uncial form with a thorn over the center
shaft. Finally, both make use of a very similar,
strongly waved sign to indicate the abbreviation
of us or as a terminal mark. The undated epitaph
.1..1.
1.
L.
J.
J. ...
..J
"--'
.. ,
.....
..
.............
~
is ascribed by Ongania (with a question mark but
certainly with right) to the eleventh century.
Similarities of style along with the great delicacy
of its script also relate it to the epitaph in Poitiers
dated 1097, and it thus serves as a connecting link
between our script and the latter. At all events, it
testifies to a highly notable native tradition of
writing.
In short, the principal, older hand of the lower
zone of the portal mosaics can most likely be
dated between the 1060s and the 1090S.
In the later script, two straight rows oftesserae
are used for shafts and one row for small bows,
with the large bows thickened by the addition of a
second row. The shafts are usually terminated by
small spurs. The letter forms include A with a
blunt peak and straight and broken crossbars;
capital 0; both capital and uncial E, G, and V; Q
with an inset tail; open R; and some ligatures. The
script is still tied to the eleventh century through
older forms, but it already points toward the
slightly later group of inscriptions in the main
apse."
The Main Apse
The second group" comprises the inscriptions
in the main apse: the horizontal running inscription and the inscribed names of Saints Nicholas,
Peter, Mark, and Hermagoras. The medieval
portions of this group are written by two different hands, a principal hand responsible for the
horizontal inscription and the names of Saints
Nicholas, Peter, and Mark, and a second hand
responsible solely for the name of Saint Herrnagoras.
The extremities of these inscriptions are postmedieval restorations and should be disregarded:
that is, the beginning QVATVOR HOS- on the left
end of the horizontal inscription, and the terminal
/V[MjQ[VAM1Q[VE]
RELICTVS on the right end; the
left part of the name of Saint Nicholas, S NICHO'-;
and the right part of that of Saint Hermagoras,
-RCORAS.13
The medieval portions of the inscriptions show
various evidence oflater tampering. A number of
stylistically corrupt letters can be recognized even
in older photographs,
especially the incorrect
ending of the first verse ...
cVRfE].
The most
recent restorations were evidently undertaken
only about 1975. As far as one can see from a
comparison of older and more recent photo-
297
graphs, the following portions were reset in the
course of this latest work: the beginning of the
horizontal inscription up to the F in FVIT; a large
section of the same inscription, with indeterminate boundaries, above Saint Peter; and the entire
section above Saint Mark; the upper left portion
of the inscribed name of Saint Nicholas, S N-; the
right portion of the inscription for Saint Peter; the
entire inscription for Saint Mark; and finally, the
M in the inscription for Saint Hermagoras. 2~
The four verses of the horizontal inscription
each fill one line in the four wall surfaces flanking
the three windows of the apse. Their spacing,
however, is conspicuously poor because of the
area allotted them. There was not enough room
for the first two lines, so that the end of each had
to be compressed. For the third verse, the available space was made more or less adequate
through the adoption of monogrammatic
symbols prior to the end of the text. The fourth verse
is written from beginning to end in smaller letters, but its original arrangement cannot be determined because of later restoration.' These observations and the very narrow space between the
writing and the figures would seem to suggest
that the horizontal inscription was added later.
However, before evaluating this conclusion we
must bear in mind that the inscribed names of the
first three saints were made by the same hand.
The earlier hand maintained the same breadth
throughout for the verticals and bows of the letters by using two rows of tesserae and one row
for the thinner parts of the bows. The verticals
end in thin spurs. Several ligatures and monogrammatic symbols occur. Among the notable
details of the letter forms are the following: the A
is topped by a spur, and its thinner left leg is
broadened to form a spur only on the inside, so
that it appears to turn slightly inwards; the bows
of B, P, and R do not reach to the verticals, and
those of the B are separated; the crossbar of the H
is thicker than its verticals. as is the diagonal of the
N; M occurs only as a capital, its middle part
extending down to the base-line of the letters. Its
verticals and legs are alternately thin/thick/thin/
thick, as are the legs of the A and V; the tail of the
R swings slightly outward, and the top bar of the
T is thin; and U occurs once together with V. The
arrangement of the inscribed name of Saint Hermagoras in two horizontal lines by the second
hand is conspicuously different from that of the
other three names, which are arranged vertically.
The top line is filled exclusively by ses and the
lower one by the name, the right portion of
which is a later restoration. This hand also differs
from the first in making even the shadow strokes
of the bows with two rows of tesserae and thickening the bow of the C and middle part of the S by
using three; the verticals and crossbar of the Hare
equal in width; an uncial .M is used; and finally,
the abbreviation of sanaus is scs rather than S.
The characteristics of the earlier hand in this
group of scripts are frequently seen in mosaic
inscriptions of the immediate area. 25 As was mentioned above, it is rather closely related to the
later hand of the portal mosaics. Furthermore.
the inscribed name of Jeremiah and the word
pI ROP ]HI ET]A accompanying the inscribed name
oflsaiah in the series of prophets in the dome over
the high altar (see below) is unquestionably by the
same hand as the inscriptions in the apse. The
technique and the forms of the letters are identical; the similar forms of A, H. M. and R should
especially be noted. These similarities link the
east dome to the apse in the closest possible way.
A further example of this form of writing is
found in the two mosaics of the north and south
apses of San Giusto in Trieste. 2.. Here. too, it is the
stylistic traits of certain letters in particular that
offer the clearest parallels to our script: namely A,
B, H, M, N, P, and R. Their technical execution
likewise corresponds to that of the apse inscriptions in San Marco.
Finally, the few extant fragments of the apse
mosaic of the former cathedral of Sanr'Orso in
Ravenna show the same traits as this group of
inscriptions."
The only remaining fragment of
script, the SCA MARIA for the figure of the Orant
Madonna, contains the three key letters A, M,
and R, whose forms, even in the damaged state
caused by the frequent removal and replacement
of the mosaic, are still clearly recognizable and are
evidence of their affiliation with the group described here: the A broadened on the inside of the
left leg to form a spur; the M with a long middle
part; and the R which, being now incompletely
closed, must originally have been open.
The fragment from Ravenna is of particular
interest in this context, because the mosaic dated
to II 12. This date, of course, can be used only
very approximately as a guide to the group as a
whole." The first two decades of the twelfth cen-
,.,:
..
','
rury are thus a possibility for the mosaic inscriptions of the apses of San Marco and Trieste. 29
The East Dome
The inscriptions of the dome over the high
altar'? wc re written by many hands at different
times. The first area to be considered is the dome
itself, with the inscribed names of Mary and the
prophets and their scroll inscriptions.
We must begin by excluding the post-medieval
restorations. These include the last line on the
scroll of Zephaniah; the last two lines each on the
scrolls of Daniel, Habakkuk, Haggai, andJonah;
and the inscribed name ofJonah.
The medieval portions of the inscriptions in the
dome can be divided into two groups, each with
three hands. The earlier group belongs to the
early twelfth century, the later one to the late
twelfth century. The first includes the name inscription for Jeremiah and the word P!ROP]H[ET]A
in the preceding inscription for Isaiah (hand I),
the writing on the scroll ofJeremiah (hand 2), and
the name and scrolll inscription for Obadiah and
the scroll inscription for Habakkuk (hand 3). In
the later group, the name inscriptions for Mary,
Malachi, Solomon. David, and the upper portion
of Zechariah's can probably be ascribed to one
hand (hand 4); a second is responsible for the
names of Habakkuk, Hosea, Zephaniah, and
Haggai (hand 5); and yet another for the inscriptions ofIsaiah-except
for the word pr ROP [n] ET]A
belonging to hand I-and the lower portion of
the inscribed name for Zechariah (hand 6).
As we have seen, hand I of the earlier group is
identical with the hand that wrote most of the
apse inscriptions. The letters A, H, M. and Rare
characteristic tor this hand. receiving the same
forms here as in the apse. The remaining two
hands of the group are related to this older one,
but only through an occasional form, such as one
open ß and M with a long cenrer,
The three hands of the later group are difficult
to separate but belong at any rate to a single
workshop.
Hand 4 makes the verticals and bows of the
letters very broad throughout
by using three
rows of tesserae. The letter forms include the
so-called pseudo-uncial A with a wavy left leg (in
ligatures, the right leg); an I with a knot at the
center; an uncial M with a closed left bow,
together with capital M; and an R with a tail bent
upward. The internal shapes of the round letters
are stylistically noteworthy because the inner
contours of the bows run parallel up to the point
where they begin to round off, so that an elon. gated oval shape is created. This hand probably
represents the principal master of the group.
The script of hand 5 has a very similar appearance to the preceding one, but the verticals and
bows are sometimes made with only two rows of
stones. and the interiors of the round letters are
not shaped in the above manner.
That hand ri, which wrote most of the scroll
inscriptions, is a separate hand rather than representing a simplified version of the script written
by hand 4 or 5 is indicated by the name of Zechariah, the first part of which, ZAKA-, was written
by hand 4 and the obviously different second part
by hand 6. The latter forms the verticals and bows
with two rows of tesserae throughout
and
strongly broadens the legs of A and V and the
verticals of M and N. Numerous abbreviations
and monogrammatic
symbols are used. The A
occurs both as a capital and as a pseudo-uncia!
with a wavy left leg (in ligatures a wavy right leg
is also found). The square C reappears alongside
the round C. M occurs only as a capital with a
short middle part. R appears in two forms, with a
tail bent down to the base line and with a tail bent
upward. U is used together with V.
A striking characteristic of this hand is the use
of ornamental dots above and below the thin
parts of the bows of D, O. Q, and U. They are,
however. used only occasionally, without any
system.
As for the dating of these two groups of inscriptions in the dome, the identity of hand I with
the principal hand of the apse inscriptions allows
us to place the earlier group near the prophet
Jeremiah within the second and third decades of
the twelfth century, a dating that is not contradicted by style or form.
The dating of the later group is determined by
elements of form, style, and decoration that
already belong to the early Gothic period in the
development of script: a strong broadening of
verticals and legs, a deliberate contouring of
bows, the gradual predominance of uncials and
pseudo-uncials, and the occasional use of ornamental forms. The onset of this stylistic and formal development goes back to the beginning of
the second quarter of the twelfth century" and
299
The portion of the inscription above the eagle,
APERIRE' DATVR',
is in a script dating' from
the thirteenth century (hand 2), except for the I
and the second E in aperire and the D in the
following word, datur, which were repaired in the
sixteenth century by hand 4. The strokes of the
letters are made with four rows oftesserae and are
thus unusually heavy. The A and V are wide with
strongly thickened legs, the R has an out-swung
tail, and the T has a thick vertical with a thinner
crossbar.
The end of the inscription, 'ET IN HIS DEVS IPSE
NOTATVR',
is located above the ox (hand 3). With
the exception of the D, which is probably a sixteenth-century restoration by hand 4, the inscription seems to be essentially homogeneous. The
letters are wide and thick, the individual strokes
made with four rows of tesserae, like those of
hand 2. The writing is in scriptura continua, unlike
that of hand 2; the letter forms resemble those of
hand 2, but the T has a thickened vertical and a
very heavy crossbar made with four rows of
stones.
The writing in the book held' in the hooves of
the ox is a simple calligraphic variant of the script
of hand 3. It too is written in scriptura continua, but
the strokes are only two rows wide. The notable
letter forms are pseudo-uncial A, Din both capi-'
tal and uncial form, G with an angular curled-in
tail, and R with a tail bent down to the base line.
The I and H have ornamental dots.
These characteristics
suggest a close relationship between hand 3 and hand 6 in the dome
proper; they probably stem from the same workshop. I should also mention the inscription on the
main arch of the east dome, ITALIAM llBIAM ••• ,
which belongs to the first half of the thirteenth
century.
reached its high point in the early thirteenth. One
of the key forms of this style, the so-called
pseudo-uncial A with one straight leg, one waved
leg extending to its peak, and a top bar, is only
rarely found before the last decade of the twelfth
century." There is more evidence for it after 1200.
The later group of inscriptions in the dome over
the high altar can accordingly be given a beginning date around the close of the twelfth century.
The inscription above the symbols of the
evangelists in the pendentives of the east dome
and the writing in the book held by the ox must
be considered separately, because they are only in
part connected with the inscriptions in the dome
proper and are heterogeneous besides.
The beginning of the inscription over the lion,
QUAEQ[VE]
SVB' OBSCVRIS',
which we will attribute to hand I, offers particular difficulties. It
shows an unparalleled stylistic jumble, especially
in the word obscuris. The wide, thin, awkward 0
has an antiquated look, whereas the V can be
recognized as the work of hand 3, which will be
discussed below. The terminal letters -IS' were
made by the sixteenth-century
hand that also
wrote the portion of the inscription above the
eagle. The first S and the R show changes whose
date could not be determined.
The portion by hand I that remains after these
have been discounted contains contradictory elements -in itself. Some of the letters, such as E and
o and the written-out AE would seem to suggest
an early date, and yet there are strong indications
to the contrary: the narrow A with a top bar
projecting to the left; the Q with an upturned,
double-waved tail; the unmistakable thickening
of the arms of the V, which like those of the A and
the bars of the E have no spurs; and finally, the
dot separating SVB from the succeeding word.
These forms rule out a date prior to the early
thirteenth century, even though we cannot exclude the possibility that they were constructed
upon an earlier inscription whose individual details can no longer be distinguished.
The continuation of the inscription over the
angel, 'DE CRISTO DICTA FlGVRIS', with the exception of the final -RIS', is written in a sixteenthcentury script (hand 4), probably by Bartolomeo
Bozza." This hand is also responsible for the restorations in the portions of the text attributable to
hands I and 2. The last three letters, as well as the
terminal sign made up of three dots and a comma,
show the characteristics of hand 2 or hand 3.
'HlS'
'. The Choir Cha pels, the Miracles of
.
Christ, and the South Dome
This extensive area" contains several different
groups of inscriptions. The largest, which ~e
will designate group I, is composed of the mscriptions for the Legend of Saint Peter on the
north wall of the choir; those for the Legend of
Saint Clement on the south wall, including the
writing for the representation of Saint Clement in
the conch of the Cappella di San Clemente and the
inscription on the frontal ~rch of th~ chapel; and
those for the Legend of Samt Mark m the upper-
."';
300
.'
-!~
,.
_;:,,}~~i.~f.,
THE
PALEOGRAPHY
most zone of the north and south walls and in the
two barrel vaults north and south of the east
dome .: A second large group, closely related to
the first, includes those for the Miracles of Christ
in the north vault of the north transept and in the
east vault of the south transept.
A third group contains the inscriptions for the
saints of the south dome. A number of inscriptions in the area of the Cappella di San Clemente
can be divided into two further groups: the inscription for the enthroned Christ in the arch
leading to the choir (group 4), and those for
the archangels Michael and Gabriel and Saints
George and Theodore in the arch opening from
the chapel toward the south (group 5). The Greek
inscription for Gregory of Nazianzus on the inner
west arch of the chapel probably also belongs to
the latter. These five groups can be assessed collectively. A sixth group of inscriptions, still belonging to the twelfth century. was written by
the hand responsible in the Cappella di San Pietro
for the inscribed name of Peter in the conch of the
apse, the inscription on the front of the apse arch.
and the inscription concerning the program of the
church on the inner faces of the four chapel
arches.
Various works in the area of the choir chapels
by other hands belong to a later time and can only
be mentioned in passing. The one-line inscription
for the representation of Cain and Abel in the
lunette of the portal leading to the Palace of the
Doge shows four different hands: two are from
the thirteenth century and resemble the second
hand that worked on the symbols of the evangelists in the pendentives of the east dome; the other
two date from the nineteenth or early twentieth
century. The inscribed names of Saints Boniface
and Homobonus in the arch of the Cappella di
San Clemente opening into the Cappella del Santissimo Sacramento have certain characteristics
relating them to the inscriptions in the Cappella
Zen and the apse mosaic from San Cipriano in
Murano, now in Potsdarn:" like these, they were
not executed before the middle of the thirteenth
century. The inscriptions for the evangelist Matthew and the apostle Andrew on the inner west
arch of the Cappella di San Pietro probably also
date from the thirteenth century, whereas those
of the medallions portraying the apostles Peter
and Paul on the north wall are from the fourteenth.
A
number
of
other
inscriptions-especially
those in the arches of the two
OF
THE
INSCRIPTIONS
side chapels opening into the choir-are
postmedieval.
The large group of inscriptions for the Legends
of Peter. Clement. and Mark can be ascribed in
their original form to a single hand. The title
inscriptions, PRAESVL AlT .•• and SISINIVS SACRATA
...•
for the Legend of Saint Clement must be
disregarded entirely, since they were completely
reset in the nineteenth century without regard
for the earlier forms. In the title inscription
·1 CONSECRATVS
•••
, the portions
·1 CON- and
-M FVNGERE P- are old, the remainder is restored.
In ·QVE[M] SVFFOCANTE5 .••
, QVE[M]
SVFF-5 TREMVNT HlI FLENT T- -LANTES·
is old. the remaining parts, according to Saccardo (p. 273),
were restored about 1879. Extensive restorations
are also evident in the title inscription for the last
scene, PONTIFICES· CLERVS ••••
Most of the remaining inscriptions likewise show signs of having been restored, but greater care was taken to
preserve the original character of the script.
A number of restorations in the names inscribed within the scenes should be excluded as
well. In the representation of the Consecration of
Saint Hermagoras the terminal -RVS of S PETRVS;
the first inscription for S· HERMA/GORA;
the last
syllables, -GORA, of the second; and the entire
. word ALESAN/DRIA are all new. In the Voyage of
Saint Mark, the inscription for this city has likewise been completely restored. The names inscribed in the scene at the right show extensive
restorations. as is true for the last two representations of the Translation of the Relics of Saint
Mark and Saint Mark Calming the Storm.
Yet despite the many and extensive restorations, it is possible, thanks to the large scope of
this group, to analyze the scripts with almost
complete certainty. As in all the mosaic cycles of
San Marco, the main inscription of each scene
appears above it; single explanatory
descriptions-principally
names-are
found within the
scenes. In the title inscriptions, the verticals and
bows of the letters are executed with two rows of
tesserae. The bows widen out from a single row
to two, but the verticals and sides are left unthickened. In the smaller name inscriptions, the
strokes are usually executed with one row only.
The verticals throughout are finished with spurs;
words are inconsistently divided; ligatures and
abbreviations are used sparingly in the title inscriptions, more copiously in the secondary inscriptions.
The following letter forms are noteworthy. A
and V are capped here and there with spurs; those
lacking spurs are probably restorations. The C is
fairly open. with prominent spurs; a Byzantine C
with strongly in-curving arms and spurs attached
at right angles appears once. D. E. and Hare
usually capital but also appear in uncial form. M
occurs only as a capital; its long middle part is led
into the verticals at the top. and its upper spurs are
consistently attached only to the outside of the
verticals. N is capital. blunt at the top and base.
with spurs attached outside. "Q and R both have
long tails.
The inscriptions for the eight scenes of the
Miracles of Christ in the two barrel vaults include
a number of post-medieval restorations. probably from the sixteenth century: the inscription
TV LINIS ••• for the Healing of the Blind Man; the
initial PANIB[VS] v- in the Multiplication of the
Loaves; the word SAMARITANE in the inscription
for the Woman of Sarnaria; and the inscription
within that scene. VENIT£" VIDETE •••. Among the
many inscriptions of Christ's name, those in the
Multiplication of the Loaves and the Healing of
the Blind Man also belong to the sixteenth century.
The remaining inscriptions for these scenes
have an original base. even though almost all of
them seem to have been restored in the nineteenth
century. Among them. the inscription for the
Multiplication of the Loaves is conspicuously bad
in quality.
What may be accepted as the authentic core of
the inscriptions was separately analyzed in detail.
The results of this analysis show it to be almost
identical in form and style to group I in the choir
chapels, with only minor differences. Uncial E
appears relatively often in group I, but in group 2
it is used only in reduced size as an insertion; G
appears in group 2 in its classical form with a
straight tail, but in group I it appears exclusively
as an uncial; the AE ligature present in group 2
does not appear at all in group I. The extensive
changes that all of these inscriptions have undergone prevent a determination whether different
hands from the same workshop were at work on
them or whether they represent stages in the development of a single master.
The inscribed names of Saints Leonard, Nicholas, Clement. and Blasius in the south dome and
of Saint Dorothea in the northwest pendentive
have the same characteristics as the inscriptions of
groups I and 2. The narrow forms ofC and E and
the striking. extended form of the tail of the
R should be especially noted. Some tampering
seems to be evident in the inscriptions for Saints
Nicholas and Blasius. Again, since this group
is too limited in scope, we cannot determine
whether we have one master or a workshop to
contend with.
The inscription for the enthroned Christ in the
arch opening into the choir from the Cappella di
San Clemente has narrow letters and is cramped
in appearance. This general impression is heightened by two Ts extending above the line.
In form and style the script is closely related to
those of the choir chapels. Its notable features are
the Byzantine C used together with Latin C.
the waved bar capping the elevated T, and the
pointed form of the V. The contraction sign
swells in the middle. Thus within the context of
the choir chapel inscriptions we are probably
dealing with an independent hand.
Another independent hand can be seen in the
inscriptions for the archangels Michael and Gabriel and Saints George and Theodore in the upper part of the Cappella di San Clemente.
Although their formal and stylistic criteria agree
essentially with those of the main inscriptions in
the choir chapels. they show a distinct artistic
personality, especially in the letters 13 and R,
whose respective bows and bow and tail are not
joined to each other. and in the use of swelling
abbreviation signs such as are found in the inscription for the enthroned Christ. The script in
general seems to be rather carelessly executed.
These five groups, which comprise the greater
part of the inscriptions of the choir chapels, the
Miracles of Christ, and the south dome, show
clear individual differences, but also an equally
clear relationship to each other. They have in
common a simple, almost block-like treatment of
letters and a general tendency to avoid double
forms. For instance, in the large group of inscriptions in the choir chapels, E is the only uncial that
appears relatively often in company with its capital, and uncial D and H appear only once each.
This simplification of style and form seems tailormade for large programs. Not a single trace of
early Gothic is in evidence.
Ifwe look among the mosaic inscriptions oft~e
church for parallels to the scripts of the ChOIr
chapels. we may perhaps see an affinity, within
the older scripts, to that of hand 3 in the east
302
THE
PALEOGRAPHY
dome; a hand, that is, that already departs noticeably from the stylistic refinements of the group as
a whole in the direction of stylistic simplification,
even though it belongs to the older group of east
dome inscriptions. This alone, however, is not
enough to prove a direct relationship to the inscriptions of the choir chapels.
There is a closer relationship, both in style and
in form, to the succeeding group of inscriptions
in the west and north domes; these will be discussed later in detail. For now, this observation
may be enough to show that there is nothing
unique in the appearance of the inscriptions in the
choir chapels and that they are clearly part of a
wider tradition of writing. Scripts of this kind,
which seem not to participate in the general advance of writing but which cultivate instead a
style more strongly indebted to classical capitals,
have been found in Rome during the twelfth century and occasionally also in France." The dating
of such scripts, as in the present case, becomes the
more difficult the fewer the local, dated comparisons we have to fall back on. We can probably
assume that the choir chapel inscriptions were
begun about the second or third decade of the
twelfth century.
A few inscriptions in the Cappella di San Pietro
differ distinctly in style and form from those in
the area of the choir chapels discussed so far. They
include the well-known inscription + EST CAPVT
... concerning the program of the church, the
inscribed name of Saint Peter in the conch of the
chapel apse, and the inscription on the frontal
arch of the apse, + CLAVIGER AETERNE .•••
The inscriptions strike us at once by the particular elegance of their lines. This impression is
due mainly to the care taken in setting the stones
but also to the style of the individual parts of the
letters.
We can omit from analysis the portion of the
program inscription located on the south side, PER
MEDIVM scrs, which is a restoration
of the nineteenth century. It is difficult to judge the extent to
which other restorations have encroached upon
the originals; the very broad H in HOC is suspicious, as is the abbreviation sign in scs PETRVS,
which is framed at the ends by two dots. It was
probably the original mosaicist who corrected the
incorrect form FVGA of the word FVT[ VR]A by
adding a thin crossbar to the G to change it into an
uncial T and by placing a VR contraction sign
above it.
OF
THE
INSCRIPTIUNS
The ends of the verticals ofP and T and of the
sides of A and V are broadened to a wedge shape.
Most of the bows thicken from a single row of
stones to two, and occasionally to three. The
interiors of some of the round letters already have
the elongated oval form observed in the script
written by hand 4 in the east dome.
Other letter forms worth noting are capital A
with both straight and broken crossbars and three
pseudo-uncial As tied to uncial E in the ligature
AE in the arch of the apse. R is sometimes made
with a tail curving down to the base line and
sometimes with one swung vigorously upwards.
Uncial T, corrected from a G as mentioned
above, appears once along with capital T. The
two beginning crosses are Latin in form.
Formally and stylistically the script cannot be
dated before the late twelfth century. This puts it
within the circle of the late group of east dome
inscriptions already described; it is related to these
through the treatment of verticals, sides, and
bows and through the letter forms of A and R.
The West and North Domes
Skipping the central dome," whose inscriptions belong to a later epoch (see below), we find
the natural sequel to the inscriptions of the choir
chapels in the scripts of the west and north
domes. This group includes the inscriptions of
the west dome for the representations
of the
Pentecost, the. sixteen nations, and the angels of
the Sanctus; those of the north dome for the combination of letters in the center of the dome, for
the Legend of Saint John, and for the symbols of
the evangelists; and finally, those in the barrel
vault south of the main dome and on the arch in
front of the vault for the Temptation of Christ,
the Entry into Jerusalem, the Last Supper, the
Washing of the Feet, and the prophets Daniel,
David, and Jeremiah. The evaluation of this
group of inscriptions was made especially difficult by the lack of adequate illustrations. Still, its
most important features can be distinguished.
The inscriptions are essentially the work of a
single hand, although some minor differences
may be seen in the simpler calligraphy of the
lower zones.
In the west dome, portions of the inscriptions
for the nations and the words DEUS SABAOTH PLENI
SVNT COELI ET TERRA GLORIA TUA of the Sanctus are
later restorations. In the north dome, the inscriptions for John and the Temple of Diana in the
Legend of Saint John, the beginning of the circular inscription EST DEVS. . • , and the inscribed
names of Saints Gregory and Jerome have also
been restored. It is worth noting the excellent
arrangement
of the two circular inscriptions
in the west and north domes respectively,
+ SPIRITVS IN FLAM[ M ]IS ••• and + PRO CUNCTIS
... , the first of which is fitted without breaks in
the words between the twelve rays leading from
the center throne to the apostles.
The round letters are given an unusual treatment: the interiors of C, uncial D and E, G, 0,
and Q are deformed into bifoil figures by the
indentation
of their bows. These decorative
forms are not used with total consistency, however, for the simple forms appear as well, especially in the smaller inscriptions.
Study of the remaining forms yields the following results: A appears only as a capital, either
pointed or with a top bar that occasionally projects to the left; H appears in both capital and
uncial form; the center of the M usually reaches
below the midpoint of the line and is led above
into the verticals; the diagonal' bar of the N is
inserted into the verticals, but a normal capital N
also occurs; the Q in the Sanctus inscription has a
thorn attached to the tail; R has a tail bent down to
the base line; the pointed V often has a base bar,
and uncia I U appears with it. Verticals and sides
are straight and are not thickened.
These forms and the straight lines of the letters
date the script close to the time of the choir chapel
inscriptions, with which it also agrees in the shape
of the M. It differs from them primarily in the
indentation of the bows of the larger round letters. This striking formation is not, to be sure, an
important stylistic feature. Rather, it must be
regarded as an ornamental accessory and as such,
as we have seen, it is not used consistently. As a
matter of fact, it has been found in majuscules in
books and documents since Carolingian times,
sometimes in a form that leaves the outer contour
ova~ ~hile making the interior bifoil through the
addition of thorn-like projections's-c-as in an
epigraphic example of Ii7339-but
also in the
form found in our inscription, where the outer
contour conforms to the inner. <40 In addition to
Carolingian examples, parallels to our form may
be fo~nd in the work of the Master Acceptus in
Apulia from 1039 onward and in a Venetian ins.cription of 1138; the cramped style and many
ligatures and enclaves of letters in the latter ,
however, make it quite different from the mosaic
inscriptions."
Essentially, therefore, we must rely for the
dating of the west and north dome inscriptions of
San Marco upon their remaining stylistic and for-"
mal traits. Their straight linear style, as has already been mentioned, is very close to that of the
choir chapel inscriptions, although the letters are
somewhat slenderer and lighter. In comparison
to those inscriptions, the inventory of forms is a
little richer, as is shown for instance by the variations of the letters A, D, E, H, N, U, and V. The
script can accordingly be dated after those of the
choir chapels, although again a more precise date
is not possible.
The Central Dome, the Passion,
the Resurrection, and Lives of the Apostles
The final, large group of twelfth-century
scripts? in the interior of San Marco comprises
the inscriptions for the Ascension dome, including the circular inscription DICITE QUID ..• in the
dome proper and the inscribed names and scroll
inscriptions for the sixteen virtues and beatitudes,
the four evangelists, and the four rivers of paradise in the pendentives (A). The inscriptions
accompanying the scenes of the Passion and Resurrection in the barrel vault west of the dome also
belong to this group (B)-with
the exception of
the Noli me tangere and Saint Thomas (D)-as do
those accompanying the Lives of the apostles in
the vault south of the west dome and on the south
wall below it (C).
In the circular inscription for the scene of
the Ascension in the dome, the words cltves
GALILEI (except for the C) are post-medieval
restorations. The M in Mary has also been restored.
Of the inscriptions for the virtues and beatitudes,
those for Modesty, so far as can be discerned, are
by the same thirteenth-century
hand that created
the writing for the scene of Cain and Abel; the
inscriptions for Hope, like those for the Women
at the Sepulcher and the Anastasis, belong to the
early sixteenth century.
The inscriptions for the evangelists have undergone extensive restoration. The portions of
text above Mark (except for the 5) and John are
probably original. The writing in the book held
by Saint Mark, who was restored in 1843 by G.
Moro, according to Saccardo, likewise appears. to
have been remade. The T appearing in the 111scription above Saint Luke belongs to the four-
:.";".':
. j~~~ti:,~~
THE
PALEOGRAPHY
reenth century; the remainder of the text was
probably res~ored in the nineteenth. The inscriptions for Samt Matthew, who, Saccardo says,
was reset in 1864 by E. Podio, belong totally to
the nineteenth century. In the names of the rivers
of paradise, the letters FI in FISON were restored.
The style of this carefully executed script differs considerably from that of the inscriptions
discussed so far, with the exception of the later
group in the east dome over the high altar. In
many cases, the shafts broaden continuously
from the center toward the ends. This thickening
also occurs inside the letters, so that the addition
of a crossbar or bow produces an obtuse angle.
Small spurs are attached to the wide ends of the
shafts; broadening has not yet absorbed the spurs.
The crossbars of the E and the sides of capital A
and V are treated similarly. The bows of the
round letters, which in the earlier scripts were
given only a slight, normal thickening along the
vertical axis, now swell more emphatically.
The forms of the letters correspond to these
advanced stylistic elements. A appears both as a
capital and, in ligatures, as a pseudo-uncial. A
square C appears again in the repertoire together
with round C. D and E occur in both capital and
uncial form. H occurs only once as an uncial. The
I sometimes has a knot in the middle. The center
part of the M usually reaches only to the midpoint
of the line and is introduced between the verticals
as an independent element; uncial M with a bow
forming a closed loop at the left is also found.
N, with especially characteristic, thick, wedgeshaped verticals, is pointed at the base. R has a tail
curved strongly upward and occasionally one
curved downward toward the base line. The V is
pointed; U is used only in ligatures. AE is replaced sometimes by a single E and sometimes by
an E written together with the remainder of a
ligatured A. Particular mention should be made
of the use of a Byzantine sigma in the abbreviation of the nomen sacrum IC, not only in the inscribed names of Christ here and in the Passion
scenes, but also in the dome inscription, ... FlUVS
ISTE D[E]I
IC ••••
In the scenes of the Passion and Resurrection,
only the inscriptions for Judas and the Ecce Homo
are well preserved. The inscriptions for the
Women at the Tomb and the Anastasis were set in
the early sixteenth century, although in the latter
the ending of the original tide, ';'NO SVP[ ER ]NO,
was retained. The inscriptions in the Crucifixion,
OF
THE
INSCl{lPIIUN~
which bears no title, are in part damaged, as is the
name of Mary, and are in part post-medieval
restorations, as the superscription on the cross.
The inscriptions for the Noli me tangere and Saint
Thomas will be discussed separately below.
The writing for the scene with Judas and the
Ecce Homo is particularly worth noting because of
its careful execution, despite being crowded from
lack of space. Obviously, the use of alternating
forms for individual letters was precisely thought
out: uncials are used only in ligatures or in reduced size as litterae insertae, whereas full-sized
and free-standing letters are written as capitals.
The uncial forms appearing together with their
capitals are B, D, E, H, Q, and U and pseudouncial A, which here, too, is used only in ligatures. Along with square C, a square form of G
has been adopted. It is also worth noting the
single occurrence of a capital M whose middle
part has been furnished with a short center vertical reaching down to the base line in the Byzantine manner. The stylistic characteristics of this
script are the same as those of the dome inscriptions and are repeated in the smaller writing on
the scrolls.
The script in the Judas and Ecce Homo scene is
probably by the same hand that executed the
inscriptions of the main dome. The departures we
have observed in it--essentially an enrichment of
the formal repertoire-s-can best be understood as
modifications by one and the same hand, which
found more creative leeway in the different requirements of the task.
The inscriptions for the Lives of the apostles in
the vault south of the west dome and on the south
wall below it are likewise by the hand of the
principal master who worked on the inscriptions
of the Ascension dome. They also. contain
numerous restorations, especially the beginning
of the inscription for the Life of Saint Philip,
'MARS RVTT' ANGVIS .••
, and the word ses; in the
same inscription, the abbreviation sign for I[ N]
PACE is missing, a flourish is visible in front of the
I, and the following word Q[ VI lEVIT lacks a small I
over the Q to indicate the contraction.
In the scenes of the Life of Saint Bartholomew,
the portion of the inscription that reads vertically
from top to bottom scs BARTHOlO/ME/VS'
/OCCI/
DITU/R' appears to be in the best state ofpreserva. tion. In the Life of Saint James the inscription
'PELITVR
•••
has probably been restored: the
words are irregularly spaced, and in front of the
305
C H APT
E R T WEN
dot preceding pr ER]cvssvs we can still see the gold
that once enclosed an earlier dot. Prominent
among the letter forms are the excessively narrow
V and the stylistically uncharacteristic tail of the R '
in PELITVR; the orthographic lapsus of the missing
second L in this word is probably also the result of
restoration.
A study of the letter forms in this group of
inscriptions shows it to be almost identical with
the principal group, A, in the Ascension dome.
Both groups characteristically use double forms
for many of the letters, for instance B, C, D, E,
and U/V; in addition, uncial M appears once with
a loop closing at the left, and R occurs with both
tail forms.
The stylistic treatment of the verticals in this
group is simpler than it is in the work of the
principal hand of the dome: although the shafts
of M, N, and T and the sides of A and V are
broadened here as there, the remaining verticals
are even in width.
Whether this represents a graphic simplification by the master of group A or is the work of
someone else from the same workshop must remain an open question.
.
The decisive criterion in the general evaluation
of this large group of inscriptions in the central
dome and in the scenes of the Passion, Resurrection, and Lives of the apostles is its close relationship to the late group in the east dome over
the high altar (hands 4-6). They have a number of
letter forms in common, such as the pseudouncial A found together with its capital, square C
together with its round form, the variation in
form of capital and uncial D, E, and U/V, and the
R with a waved tail. But in comparison with the
inscriptions of the east dome, those of the central
dome, with their consistently broadened verticals, especially in the inscriptions of the dome
proper, is stylistically more advanced. They may
be seen as the high point in the development of
this school. Thus, if we assume a date at the end of
the twelfth century for the east dome, the central
dome, following immediately afterwards, can be
dated about 1200. We should also take into consideration in this connection the dating of the
succeeding inscription for the scenes of the Noli
me tangere and Saint Thomas.
The title inscription for the Noli me tangere and
Saint Thomas is not easily assessed because of
its extensive restoration and because it occupies
a special position stylistically. The first word,
306
T Y-0 N E
at once claims our attention. It should certainly read tangere. The error, which occurred in
the course of restoration, can be explained as a
misunderstanding of the TA ligature, with which
the word began-as does the word TACTO in the
second hexameter-a misreading of uncial G as S
and the overlooking of an ER contraction. In
other words, the original must have appeared as
TANG[ER]E. Other patent errors are the dot following NOLI, the missing connection in the
above-mentioned TA ligature between the top
bar and the body of the letter, and the double
break in the concluding VVLNER/E' / CREDIS. Finally, the left portion, IC, is missing from the
name of the Christ figure at the left; it originally
appeared below the letters ANSE.
The letter forms show A only as a capital, D
and E in both forms, and G as an uncial. The
middle part of the M is inserted into the verticals,
as in the inscriptions of the choir chapels. One R
has an outswung tail; but another, unusual form
ofR has a tail that is waved but creased inward at
the tip. It must be accepted as authentic, since it
occurs three times. The T, which is found in a
capital form and also three times as an uncial, is an
important element in the evaluation of the script.
Just as traditional forms (A, M) are mixed with
newer forms (T) in these letters, their stylistic
characteristics are similarly divergent. Verticals
and sides are of e.ven width throughout, and the
bows are only slightly thickened. Spurs are sometimes present but more often missing. If it were
not for the shape of the T, one could take this
script to be the work of a hand from the choir
chapels.
That this is not the case and that formal considerations must take precedence here over stylistic
criteria is indicated not simply by the location of
this scene, which follows the representation in the
central dome as part of a sequence. The critical
point is that this script follows a course leading
directly to the early thirteenth-century inscriptions for the Life of the Virgin in the north transept, inscriptions that are on the same stylistic level
as the writing for the scene of the Noli me tangere
and Saint Thomas, but in which the presence of
additional uncials (H, M in two forms, and N)
points to a more advanced stage of formal development.
There can thus be no doubt that in this scene we
are dealing with a script that, while later than the
inscriptions of the central dome and of the scene
ANSE,
THE
PALEOGRAPHY
OF
of Judas and the Ecce Homo in the same vault,
decidedly looks back to an earlier style, even
though it admits a few new forms.
The above observations show a process of return to the work of two and even three generations before, the earliest state of which is apparently represented by the inscription for the
3°7
THE
INSCRIPTIONS
scene of the Noli me tangere and Saint Thomas. A
more exact date, which would have to fall directly after the principal hand of the Ascension
dome and before the inscriptions for the Life of
the Virgin, would probably be the time about or
immediately after 1200.
76. O. Demus, Romanische Wandmalerei, pp. 207-8, pIs. 232, 235.
77· J. Garber, Die romanischen Wandgemdlde.
78. D. Dalla Barba-Brusin and G. Lorenzoni, L'arte, figs. 110-11.
79. O. Demus, Romanische Wandmalerei, pI. 33. The "rnaitre Venitien qui, aide
de ces deux fils, travaillait a l'abbaye de Hirsau" about the middle of the eleventh
century was not a painter, as J. Wettstein, La fresque, p. 54, seems to believe, but in
all likelihood a stone mason. In addition, he was not a Venetian proper but had
come "ex Venetiae partibus."
80. See part 2 of this monograph.
Chapter 21
I. I especially wish to thank Professor Otto Demus and Professor Irina
Andreescu for all their efforts, their patience, and their suggestions; they both did
their utmost to make available to me whatever illustrative material was required. I
should also like to thank the trustees ofHarvard University for providing me with
the means to carry out this study. For a report on the project see Otto Demus,
"Venetian Mosaics and Their Byzantine Sources." Dumbarton Oaks Papers 3 3
(1979):337-43·
2. The best and most comprehensive survey covering a wide area of medieval
epigraphy is P. Deschamps, "Etude sur la paleographie des inscriptions lapidaires
de la fin de l'epoque merovingienne
aux dernieres annees du XIIe siecle," Bulletin
monumental 88 (1929):5-88, 35 pIs. For our particular subject and period see K.
Brandi, "Grundlegung einer deutschen Inschriftenkunde," Deutsches Archiv I
(1937):11-43,
4 pIs., reprinted in K. Brandi, Aus,,!ewählte AI~fsätze (1938),
pp. 64-89; K.F. Bauer, "Mainzer Epigraphik. Beiträge zur Geschichte der
mittelalterlichen Monumentalschrift,"
Zeitschrift des deutschen Vereins ftir Buchwesen und Sc"r~fttum 9, no. 2/3 (1926); R. Conrad, Niederrheinische Epi~raphik vom
8. bis 13. Jahrhundert. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der menumentalen Schrift, diss.
(Frankfurt a.M., 1931); R. Rauh, Paläographie der maito/änkisclletl Monumentalinschriften (partial printing: introduction and history), diss. (Munich. 1935). For a
survey of the general development of medieval epigraphy see now Rudolf M.
Kloos, Einftilmmg in die Epigraphik des Mittelalters und der fruhen Neuzeit (Darmstadt, 1980).
3. The only works for the period after 1000 are L. Billo, "Le iscrizioni veronesi
dell'alto medioeva, " Archivio Vencto 64, 5th series, 16 (1934):1-122, pIs. 1-23 and
script plate; for illustrations see Arcl,ivio paleografico italiano, diretto da
E. Monaci, vol. 5, lscrizioni, fase. 9 (1904-22, and n.d.; reprinted 1963); and
especially A. Silvagni, Menumenta epigraphica thristiana s. XIII antiquiora quae in
Italiae finibus adhuc exstant, 4 vols. (Vatican City, 1943), hereafter l\lEC. The
collection by E. M. Cicogna, Delle isctizioni venezianc. 6 vols. (Venice, 1824-53),
does not include San Marco. R. Pradelli, "Delle forme della scrittura nei marmi e
nei mosaici della basilica di San Marco," in La basilica di San Marto in Venezia
illustrata nella storia e nell'atte da scrittori veneziani, sotto la direzione di C. Boito, ed ..
F. Ongania, vol. 6, Testo dell'opera, pp. 443-45, is too brief and general a survey.
4. See the comprehensive work by W. Oakeshott, The Mosaics of Rome from the
Third to the Fourteenth Centuries (London, 1967).
s· See the comprehensive work by O. Demus, The Mosaics of Norman Sicily
(London, 1950).
6. On the methods of epigraphy see R. M. Kloos, "Methoden und Möglichkeiten der lateinischen Epigraphik des Mittelalters," in Aaes du VIl' Con~~res
International d'Epigraphie grecque et latine (Constantsa, Sept. 9-15, 1977; Bucharest
and Paris, 1979), pp. 91-103, 8 illus.
, 7· See Venetia, dud nobilissima et sinoolare, descritta gid in XlIII
libri da
M. Francesco Sansovino, et hora ... corretta, emendata e ... ampliata dal M. R. D.
Giovanni Stringa (Venice, 16°4), hereafter Stringa; [Giovanni Antonio MeschineIlo], La ehiesa ducale di San Ma reo, 3 vols. (Venice, 1753/54), hereafter
Meschinello; F. Ongania, La Basilica di San Marco in Vetlezia, vol. 6, Testo
dell'opera (Venice, 1888-92); chap. 14, ibid., "Mosaici e loro iscrizioni," by Pietro
Saccardo, hereafter Ongania; P. Saccardo, Les mosaiques de Saint-Marc cl Venise
(Venice, 1896), hereafter Saccardo.
8. For the texts see Stringa, p. IS; MeschineIlo I, pp. 31-32; Ongania, p. 360;
Saccardo, pp. 219-20.
9. See D. T. Rice, By zantinische Kunst (German ed., 1964), figs. 439 and 442
(eleventh century), 210 and 266 (twelfth century), 376 (thirteenth century).
10. The only letter with a thickened bow is the C in ses SYMON.
I I. A small flourish appears at the end of Andrew's name, probably a misunderstanding due to restoration. The findings on the apostles Thomas and
Andrew probably indicate a later restoration (sixteenth century?). This could be
determined only by a more exact technical investigation.
12. Only very occasional examples of such club-shaped letter shafts can be
cited, however, for the eleventh century. Cf., e.g., the circumscription of the
imperial seal ofConrad lI, of 1031, in O. Posse, Die Siegel der deutschen Kaiserund
Kön('.!e VOtl 751 bis 1806, vol. I (Dresden, 1909), pI. 13, fig. 2; inscription no. I,
ascribed to the tenth century, in R. Neumüllers-Klauser, Die lnschriften des RheinNeckar-Kreises H, Die Deutschen Inschriften 16 (Munich, 1977); on the script of
this inscription see ibid., p. XVII.
13. See Deschamps, "Etude surla paleographie," p. 30. See also note 19 below.
14. As in manuscripts of Freising. Cf. E. F. Bange, Eitle bayerische Malerschule
des XI. lind XII. Jallrlllmderts (Munich, 1923), 1'1. 20, no. 50 (Munich MS elm
6831) and pI. 27, no. 69 (Bamberg MS Lit. 2). Other examples are Limoges,
eleventh century, from Paris, Bibl. Nat. MS Lat. 5296A, ill. in C. Samaran and
R. Marichal, Catalogue des manuscrits en ecriture latine, vol. 2, plates, Bibliotlzeqlle
Nationale (Paris. 1962), pl, 190; Reims, before 1106, in Reims, BibI. municipale,
ibid., \'01. 5, Est de la France (Paris, 1965), pl. 9. That we should not draw hasty
conclusions from such striking features is shown by the appearance of thorn-like
ornaments even after the middle of the twelfth century. Cf., e.g., MEC I, pl, 25,
fig. 3, of I 145-53, as well as numerous pieces of goldsmith's work from this time.
IS. Deschamps, "Etude," fig. 24.
16. Ibid., fig. 25.
17. F. De Guilhermy, Inscriptions de la France du ~? au XVIII' siede (Paris,
1873-83), vol. 5, pI. following p. 516.
18. Most recently K. Bauch, Das mittelalterliche Grabbild (Berlin and New
York, 1976), fig. 4.
19. R. Favreau and J. Michaud. Corpus des inscriptions de la France midievale, I,
Poitou-Charente, I, Ville de Poitiers (Paris and Poitiers, 1974), no. 89, fig. 58. The
connection with Cluny established by this personal tie is of interest, since this
writing style has been emphatically interpreted by Conrad, Niederrheinische Epigraphik, pp. 26ff., as a Cluniac creation. The reasons given, however, are as yet
not sufficient to warrant endorsement of this thesis.
20. Ill. in Ongania, script pI. 2, no. 22; see ibid., p. 444 and "Spiegazione delle
tavole," p. 446; "Storia," p. 446. The letters, like those on the epitaph in Poitiers,
are only about 1 cm high.
2 I. With respect to the text, it should be noted that the beginning of the
horizontal inscription should read + SPONSA DEI GIGNO NATOS EX VIRGINE VIRGO
instead of + SPONSA DEO ••• ; the change to DEO would seem to be the work of the
later, restoring hand and is thus further evidence that this hand is not the original
one.
22. For the texts see Stringa, pp. 27-28; Meschinello 2, pp. 107-8; Ongania,
p. 369; Saccardo, pp. 247-48.
0
NUTJ::.~
lU
1'1\L:rJ:.;)
297-3U3
23. The inscription for the enthroned Christ in the conch and the writing on the
frontal arch of the apse.. SVM REX CVNCTORUM •• '.' are entirely of the early
sixteenth century and cannot be discussed here.
24. The beginning of the ornamental band directly above the script has also
been changed, up to the point above the U of lURE.
25. For the following see also Kloos, "Methoden und Möglichkeiten," no. I.
26. The information on the mosaic inscriptions of Trieste and Ravenna is
derived from investigations likewise carried out under the sponsorship of Harvard University. On the mosaics see the bibliography in V. Glasberg, Repertoire de
la mosaique parietale et portative. Prolegemines a Im Corpus (Amsterdam, 1974),
p. 16I. .
27. The six extant fragments are now in the Museo Arcivescovile. See
G. Gerola, "Il mosaico absidale della Ursiana," Felix Ravenna 5 (1912):1-14
(= 177-90), 2 pIs; Tavole storiche dei mosaici di Ravenna, pls, 74-75: Basilica
Ursiana, text by Corrado Ricci (Rome, 1937); additional bibliography in Glasberg, Repertoire de la mosaique, p. 110.
28. A somewhat comparable inscription is found on the bronze doors of the
main portal of San Marco, which dates to 1112 (A topped by a spur, B with
unjoined bows). See Le porte bizantine di Sat, Marco, ed. Procuratoria di San Marco
(Venice, 1969). Inscriptions with consistent alteration in the strokes of M, N, and
analogous letters are the rule at this time, especially in painted script; one need
only mention the wall paintings from the end of the eleventh century in San Pietro
al Monte in Civate, which also show B with unjoined bows but look stylistically
more advanced. See O. Demus, Romanische Wandmalerei (Munich, 1968),
pIs. 11-14, color pIs. 1-4.
29. It is not possible to determine through epigraphy in which of these two
places this type of script appears first. It may be observed, however, that the later
insertion of a line of text in San Marco referring to the patron of the church has
rather the character of a first attempt when it is compared with an inscription in
Sant' Orso, which serves the same function and is set in the same place. Irina
Andreescu also favors the priority of San Marco. See Dernus, Venetian Mosaics,
p. 341.
30. For the texts see Strinya, pp. 27-28; Meschinello 2, pp. 92-93; Ongania,
p. 369; Saccardo, pp. 246-47.
3 I. See Deschamps, "Etude," pp. 37ff.; R. M. Kloos, "Epigraphische Bemerkungen zum Aachener Karlssiegel," Zeitschrift des Aachener Geschichtsvereins 82
(1972):5-10, figs. 1-8.
'
32. The pseudo-uncia! A is first found in papal documents jn I 187. See
F. Wickhoff, "Uber die Zeit des Guido von Siena," Mitteilungen des Osterr. Instituts
fiir Gesthithtsjorschung 10 (1889):244-55, especially p. 252. For inscriptions cf.
MEC 2, pI. 12, fig. 3 (from 1168); ibid., pI. 7. fig. 4 (from 1171); ibid., I, pI. 41,
fig. 4 (from I 185-87); Deschamps, "Etude," p. 39, especially the examples from
Vienne. Elsewhere the development occurs considerably later. See Rauh, Paläographie der mainfrdnkischen Monumentalinschriften, pp. j rff and W. Koch, "Paläographie der Inschriften österreichischer Fresken bis 1350," Mitteilungen des Instituts
fiir osterrcuhische GeschiclztsJorsclzutlg 77 (1969):1-42, especially pp. 6-7.
33. The script corresponds exactly to that attributed by Saccardo (Ongania,
p. 366) to Bozza (1572-76), over the representation of David in the lower zone
between the central and west domes. On Bozza see ibid., p. 316.
34. for the texts see Stringa, pp. 28-32, 39, 41, and 42; Meschinello 2,
pp. 70-71. 74-75. 77. and 95-96; Ongania, p. 367 and 37off.; Saccardo, pp.
252-53, 254-55, 271, 274-75, and 276-77.
35. For this mosaic see Glasberg, Repertoire de la mosaique, pp. 30-H.
36. See Deschamps, "Etude," pp. 49ff.
37. For the texts see Stringa, p. 38, 43, and 5 I; Meschinello 2, pp. 15-16,37-38,
and 76; Ongania, pp. 366-67, 368; Saccardo, pp. 237-38 and 242-45.
38. On this see R. M. Kloos, "Bamberger Orosiusfragrnente des 9. Jahrhunderts," in Festschrifi Bemhard Bischof[ (Stuttgart, 197I), pp. 178-97, especially
pp. 191-92, with examples from the late eighth century onward.
39. Deschamps, "Etude," fig. 41.
40. The tendency to break excessively elongated forms is already shown by the
elongata of Carolingian documents, where C and E are written with two strokes,
later assuming the form of an epsilon; the same phenomenon is seen in papal and
French imperial documents. A close example in manuscript writing can be found
in R. I. Herbert, "L'Evangeliaire de Zara (11 14}," Saiptorium 8 (1954}:I77-204,
especially pI. 20. For examples from Beneventan manuscript writing see E. A.
Lowe, Scriptura beneventana (Oxford, 1929), pI. 8, fig. 12 (beginning of the twelfth
century); pI. 6, figs. 7-9 (twelfth to thirteenth century).
41. MEC 4. pI. 10. fig. 5 (from Naples, 848); Carolingian sanctuary screen in
Spalato, ill. in Karl der Grosse, Lebenswerk und Nachleben, voI. 3 (Düsseldorf, 1965),
p. 221. For the pulpits made by Master Acceptus see H. Schäfer-Schuchardt, Die
Kanzeln des I I. bis I). [ahrhunderts in Apulien, diss. (Würzburg, 1972). For the
Venetian inscription of 1138 see Ongania, vol. 6, Testo, script pl, I, nos. 9-10.
The inscription on the arch in front of the apse of SS. Maria e Donato in Murano
has not been referred to, because its forms still await a close examination. For this
mosaic see Glasberg, Repertoire de la Mosaique, p. 92.
42. For the texts see Strinoa, pp. 47-48; Meschinello 2, pp. 18-33; Ongania,
pp. 366-67; Saccardo, pp. 238-40.