RESEARCHARTICLE
WitchcraftandtheSomersetIdyll:TheDepictionofFolkBeliefin
WalterRaymond’sNovels1
Abstract
TheworkofWalterRaymond 1852‐1931 isnowlargelyforgotten.YethisSomerset
novels,complementedbyhisethnographicwritings,containdepictionsoflocal
witchcraftbeliefthatareworthyofstudyinliteraryandhistoricalcontexts.Theyraise
issuesregardingthefictionaldepictionofrurallifeandtradition,andthevalueoffiction
asafolkloricandhistoricalsource.
InherguideAGentlewoman’sHome 1896 ,thepioneeringdomesticjournalistand
interiordecoratorJaneEllenPanton 1847‐1923 gaveadviceonthesortofliterature
thatshouldlinetheshelvesofabachelor’sroom.Abovetheheadofthebedthe
bookcaseshouldbe‘verycarefullyfilledwithlightandamusingliterature’.She
recommendedthatWalterRaymond’s‘charmingSomersetshireidyllsshouldnotbe
forgotten’,praisinghisnovelsLoveandQuietLifeandTryphenainLove‘asjewels,the
delightfulever‐changinggleamsfromwhichshouldgofartoilluminatethedarkness
whichhasoflateappearedtobegatheringroundtheheadoftheregulationEnglish
novel’ Panton1896,397 .InthesameyearLoveandQuietLifewasincludedinCharles
DudleyWarner’sLibraryoftheWorld’sBestLiterature 1896 ,whereRaymondwas
describedas‘afaithfulstudentoftheWestCountryfolk,andhehaspresentedatruthful
pictureofaphaseofEnglishlifewhichherealizedtoberapidlypassingaway’ Warner
1896,155 .
Bornintoamodestglove‐manufacturingfamilyinYeovilin1852,asayoungman
Raymondpickedupmuchruralloreandgossipashetouredthevillagesoftheregion
dealingwiththecottagerswhodidpieceworkglove‐stitchingforthefirm.Inspiredin
partbythedialectpoetryoftheNorthDorsetclergymanandphilologistWilliamBarnes
1801‐1886 ,Raymond’sliterarygoalwastocapturetheidiomandlifeofthe‘common
people’ofSomerset.HisfirstnovelMisterton’sMistake 1889 ,whichwasonlypartly
setinSomerset,was,inRaymond’sownwords,‘adismalfailure.Itwasabitterpillto
me,andItookalongtimetogetoverthedisappointment’ ‘Theauthorwhoavoidsthe
Cities’,1928 .HewroteunderthepseudonymTomCobbleighforhisthird,purely
Somerset‐locatednovelGentlemanUpcott’sDaughter 1892 ,butstruggledtofinda
publisheruntilUnwintookiton.Itwasacommercialandliterarysuccess,hiswriting
careerwaslaunched,andhewithdrewfromtheglove‐makingbusiness.By1896
Raymondhadpublishedsomesevennovels,andcontributedtonumerousmagazines
andperiodicals,includingCountryLife.
Theruralidyllnovelwasinvogue.Whileduringthefirsttwothirdsofthe
nineteenthcenturytherehadbeennumerousliteraryexpressionsofanotionaltimeless
ruralrusticity,incontrasttotherapidlyspreadingindustrial‐urbanlandscape,thelate
nineteenthcenturyandearlytwentiethcenturygeneratedfictionthattriedtoportray
the‘real’everydaylifeofruralfolk,reflectingcustomandtradition,and,inparticular,a
senseoflocalandregionalidentity see,forexample,Burchardt2002,chap.6 .Hardy’s
Wessexnovelssetthetemplateandothersfollowed,suchasConstanceHolme’s
Lancashirenovels,EdenPhillpott’sDartmoorromances,SabineBaring‐Gould’slocal
picaresquestoriesbasedonhisvariousclericalpositionsaroundthecountry,andMary
Webb’sShropshirenovels.Thesametrendhasbeenidentifiedelsewhere.InGermany
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some194Bauernromanen rusticnovels werepublishedby113differentauthors
between1871and1918 Blum1982,123 .Fewnovelistsoftheruralwereinterestedin
thesortofsocialpolemicandDarwinianprojectbehindEmileZola’sruralnovelLa
Terre 1887 .Theywereforthemostpart,Raymondincluded,writinghomagestowhat
wasavanishingwayoflife,atransformationthatwasconsideredaregrettable
consequenceofgeneralsocietalprogress.Influencedbyandoftenworkingwith
folkloristsandfolk‐songcollectors RaymondhelpedCecilSharpinhiscollectionof
Somersetfolksongsforinstance ,theruralromancerssoughttocapturethesurvivals
ofadisappearingtraditionalcultureanditsdistinctiveregionalmanifestations.Attheir
bestsomeofthenovelscanberead,asKeithSnellputsit,as‘informalethnography’
1998,23 .Yettheconsequencesofthislatenineteenth‐centuryromanticimpulseraise
numerousinterpretiveproblemsintermsofthenatureoffolkrevival,thereinvention
oftradition,andtheverisimilitudeofportrayalsofrurallife seeBoyes,1993;Bennett
1994;Harker1985;Bearman2000;Howkins1986 .
Raymond’suseoflocality,folklore,anddialecttodepictruralcultureinevitably
ledtocomparisonswithhisillustriousDorsetneighbourThomasHardy.Thereisno
evidencethetwomenevermet,thoughRaymondreviewedHardy’sworkinthepress,
andHardyoncesentanappreciativelettertoRaymondfollowingarecitationofWilliam
Barnes’spoetryhehadgiveninDorchester.RaymondrecommendedHardy’sworkto
theyoungnovelistJohnCowper 1872‐1963 ,whoseclergymanfatherwaspostedtoa
Somersetparishintheearly1890s Clark1933,37;Keith2006,271 .Duringthelate
nineteenthcenturyRaymond’sliteraryreputationwasfarfromovershadowedbyHardy
regionally,andhewasspokenofinfavourable,comparabletermsnationally.Inhis
HistoryoftheEnglishNovel 1924 ErnestAlbertBaker,forexample,described
Raymond’sTwoMeno’Mendip 1899 ,as‘averyrespectableeffortintheHardy
vein’ Baker1924,95 .In1934theWesternMorningNewsnotedthathehadbeen
calledtheHardyandtheBarrieofSomerset C.D.B.1934 .Raymond’sdeathin1931led
tothecreationofamemorialfundtopayfortherepublicationofhisworkbyJ.M.Dent
publishers.ButmoveonafewdecadesandRaymondwaslargelyforgottenlocally,
erasedfromthepagesofliteraryscholarship,andcomparisonwithHardyflatly
dismissed.Ina1986articletheSomersetauthorBertaLawrencenotedRaymond’s
considerabletalent,butcalledanycomparisonswithHardymisguided:‘Tocompare
HardyandRaymondistocompareagiantwithapigmy’ Lawrence1986,35 .Yet,such
acomparison,howeverinevitable,isunfair.WhileRaymond’sliterarytalentwasnotthe
equalofHardy’sintermsoflyricalfluencyandpsychologicaldepth,theaimofcapturing
localculturewassometimesadmirablyachievedinhiswork.Withregardtothe
portrayalofwitchcraftbeliefheisarareandinsightfulliterarychronicler,generally
resistingthetemptationtoover‐dramatizeorromanticizeitsplaceinruralculture.
TheRepresentationofWitchcraftBeliefandWitches
Witchcraftandthefigureofthewitchwerenostrangerstonineteenth‐centurynovels.
ButuntilHardyandRaymondtheimageandrepresentationwaslargelyintheveinof
fairy‐taleandGothicrepresentationssuchasJohannWilhelmMeinhold’spopular
AmberWitch 1843 .Morerealisticportrayalswerelocatedinadeephistoricalpast,as
inHarrisonAinsworth’sLancashireWitches 1849 andElizabethGaskill’sLoisthe
Witch 1859 ,basedrespectivelyontheLancashirewitch‐trialsof1612andtheSalem
trialsof1692,orwereromanticizedasintheworkofWalterScottorthemoresubtle
nuancedportrayalsofhisfellowScotsmanJamesHogg Elsley2012;Moran2000;
Tuczay2007;Richards2002;Boatright1933;Parsons1946;Briggs1972;Firor1931;
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Commented [c1]:
Killick117‐56 .Itwastheregionalnovelistsofthelatenineteenthandearlytwentieth
centurieswhoprovidedthefirstnuanced,realistic,andmeasureddepictionsofthe
mundanewitchfigureandofthenatureofpopularwitchcraftaccusationsinthe
nineteenthcentury,andfewreturnedsorepeatedlytothesubjectintheirworksas
Raymond.Hisinterestinitwentbeyonditsvalueasafictionaldevice.Hesawwitchcraft
asanintegralaspectofruralculture,andassuchgaveregulartalksonwitchbeliefsas
partofhisrepertoireofreadingsfromhisownworkandrecitationsofWilliamBarnes’s
poetry,includingoneofhisfavourites‘TheWitch’ ‘TauntonBelgianrelieflecture’
1914 .
Raymondwroteseveralaccountsofwitchcraft,witches,andcunning‐folkinhis
volumesofanecdoteandreminiscence:TheBookofSimpleDelights 1906 ,TheBook
ofCraftsandCharacter 1907 ,andUndertheSpreadingChestnutTree 1928 .Inthese
vignetteshedidnotuserealnames,andtheextenttowhichtheyarebasedonreal
encountersisnotalwaysexplicit.Yettheveracityofsomecanbetested.Oneencounter
inCraftsandCharacter,forinstance,concernsaconversationwithamanhecomes
acrosswhoisgatheringediblesnailsforsaleatBristolmarket.Whenaskedwhathe
callshimself,herepliesthathetoldthecensusenumeratorthathewasa‘snail
merchant’.AsearchoftheEnglishcensusesrevealsonlyonepersonwithsuchan
occupation—in1901and1911oneDanielWilliamsofWincanton,Somerset;clearlyone
andthesameman.SowecanreadRaymondasanethnographer,andasweshallsee,on
severaloccasionsreferencestowitchcraftandmagicinhisnovelshavetheir
counterpartsandorigininhisethnographicencounters.
Notionsofwhocontinuedtobelieveinwitchcraftinthenineteenthcenturywere
oftencolouredbycasualprejudiceratherthancloseobservation.Thosewhofeared
witchesweredismissedastheilliterate,theinhabitantsofremoteareas,andtheelderly.
Womenwereportrayedasparticularlyproneto‘superstition’andbeliefsaboutwitches.
Whiletherewascertainlynouniformityinthe‘mass’experienceacrosssocialclassesin
theperiod,thereisevidencethat‘members’oftheliterateanduneducated,theurban
andrural,theyoungandold,andmenandwomencontinuedtoexpressandactupon
thebeliefinwitchcraftandmagicrightthroughthenineteenthcentury.Raymondwas
carefulinreflectingthispervasiveconcern,notinginonenovelthat‘therootsofthese
beliefsliedeeperthanthesurfaceploughingofasuperficialeducation’ Raymond1911,
157 .Menwereas‘superstitious’aswomeninRaymond’snovels,forexample.Muchof
theactualtalkofbewitchmentisconductedbymalecharacters,andinLoveandQuiet
LifehewritesofthecharacterJosiah:‘ifeverhumansoulwasafairpreyforwitchcraftit
wasthatplacidblue‐eyedman.Hehadanaturallovefortheoccult,anddrank
superstitionmorereadilythancider.Hecuredwartsbyburyingrustybaconunderthe
stabledoor,turnedpaleifyouputthebellowsonthetable,andonce,meetingfour
magpiesontheroadtoBridgetownmarket,heturnedback’ Raymond1894,207 .Yet
Raymonddidhaveapenchantforportrayinghisattractive,intelligentleadingyoung
womenasdevoutwitchbelievers.InTwoMeno’MendipwearetoldthatforSophia‘the
beliefinwitchcraftwasnounrealfancytobelightlytreated’.SimilarlyinNoSoulabove
Money,RaymondsaysofUrsula,‘Tothegirl,witchcraftwassorealadanger,thateven
tohearthewordbroughtashudderthatcrepttoherveryfinger‐tips’.Thenin
GentlemanUpcott’sDaughterwehaveRuthUpcott:‘Sometimesmisfortuneseemedso
uncalledfor,andalwayssounexpected,thatshedreadedwitchcraft;andwondered
whetherherfather’sways...hadoffendedanyone.’ Raymond1899ba,266;1899ab,
129;1893,9 .Thereisnothingunrealisticinthis,thoughclearlyRaymondthoughtthe
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strongbeliefinwitchcraft,asHardydid,wasausefuldeviceforexpressingthe
elemental,instinctivepassionsofhisred‐lipped,hair‐tossingheroines.
Asweknowfromthehistoricalsourcesoftheperiod,witchcraftaccusations
frequentlyoriginatedfromaccumulatedpersonalmisfortune,oftenbasedaround
lingeringillhealthinhumansandrepeatedlivestockdeaths.Inadairyingcountylike
Somerset,failureinthemanufactureofbutterandcheesewasalsoacommonsourceof
suspicion.SoinRaymond’sNoSoulaboveMoney 1899 ,setinthetriangleofremote
farmlandbetweenBruton,CastleCary,andWincanton,wehearhowfarmerMalachi
Webbcomestobelievehehasbeenbewitchedfollowingthelossoftwocattle,andafter
sufferinganinjurywhenhishorsefallsintoaditch.Theformationofsuchsuspicionsis
dealtwithwellinGentlemanUpcott’sDaughter.EbenezerUpcott’ssocialposition,and
perceivedsuperiorityinthevillage,isunderminedbytheslowdeclineofhiswagoning
businessandfarmthroughmisfortune,hubris,poormanagement,anddescentinto
bankruptcy.Hegetsdeeperintodebtwithhisnemesis,themean‐spiritedMiller
Biddlecombe.OnedayoneofUpcott’scarters,JohnSprackman,visitsthemillerandtells
himabouttheirrecentrunofbadluck:
‘Ha!ha!Luck’sfirstcousintomanagement.Goodorbad,theydoshowkin.Theydo
featureeachother.’
‘Ah!’reflectedJohn.‘There’sthatbeyondmanagement.Whatcan‘eedoifyoube
overlooked?Why,uptoCadburythereweretwocowsan’adunkeydiedinoneday.
Theythought‘twereyew‐leaf.Notthat,Mr.Biddlecombe,notthat.Thecowsmid;
butthewolddunkeywerdensuchavoolastoeatyew‐leaf.Theywerewitchedright
enough.Andnowthereweretwocowsdiedo’milkfeverlastweek,an’to‐day
measter’sbaymaregie’dherselfasheäke.’ Raymond1893,69 .
ItisonlyawhilelaterthatJohnisstruckbytheconvictionthatBiddlecomehasbeen
‘witching’Upcott.SprackmanthenspreadswordaroundtheareathatBiddlecombeis
responsibleforUpcott’sdecline,peoplebegintoavoidthemiller,hisbusinesssuffers,
womencalltheirchildreninwhenhepasses;forBiddlecombethe‘solitudebecame
somethingawful.’ Raymond1893,49,94,102 .
Raymondisanunusuallycarefulobserverofthenuancesofpopularscepticism
andbelief.IntheexchangeabovebetweenSprackmanandBiddlecombe,Raymond
depictstheforensicwayinwhichwitchcraftwasdeduced.Witchcraftwasnot
automaticallysuspected.Naturalcausation,suchasyewpoisoning,waseliminatedfirst.
Itisthedonkey’snaturaldietarydiscernmentcoupledwiththemultipledeathsonone
daythatleadstosuspicion.Notallthecowdeathsareattributedtothewitcheither,as
twoarediagnosedwith‘milkfever’orwhatisknowninveterinaryscienceas
postparturienthypocalcemia.ThemiserlyfarmerJacobHandsfordinNoSoulabove
MoneygleefullytellshisdaughterUrsulaofMalachiWebb’ssuspicionsofwitchcraft,but
suggeststhatWebb’snegligence,notwitchcraft,wasprobablytoblame,
‘Ah!’criedherfather,againglancingsharplyup,‘there’smoretalk‘antruthin
whattheydotellupaboutthat.Malachi’sho’seuda‐binpulledoutifhehada‐bin
about.’…‘But,hearky,Ursie,’hepresentlywenton,‘thewitchdon’tlivethatcan
dounanyharm.Notinmind—norlimb—norpocket.He!he!‘Tisnothingbuta
fool’stale.Sothere!’ Raymond1899ab,129‐30 TheseexpressionsofscepticismdonotmeanthatHandsforddoesnotbelievein
witchcraft,however.“‘Iwurneverwitchedmyself’,hetellshisdaughter,butcontinues
inalowervoice,‘there’stheyaboutdoloveunsowellthat,iftheycouldwitchJacob
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Handsford,they‘udneverleaveunwi’athreadtohisback.’”Partofhisconfidence
regardinghiswitchcraft‐resistanceresidesinthecontentsofhispreciousnotebook,the
earlypagesofwhich‘werecoveredthickwithcharmsandcuresandrecipesintermixed
withhereandthereamaximofprudenthusbandry,culledandcopiedinfulloutofsome
printedbook’.Amongstthecharmsisone‘towardofftheevileye’ Raymond1899ab,
128‐30 .
TurningtoRaymond’svolumesofruralanecdoteswefindonesourceofhis
mindfulnessinrepresentingthesubtletiesofpopularbeliefinwitchcraft,whenhe
receivesalessoninpresumption,innotmakingassumptionsaboutwhobelievedand
whodidnotbasedonprejudices,andnotassumingthereexistedasharedmonolithic
setofpopularideasonthesubject.Thus,inhisvignette‘OftheHorseshoeontheDoor’
RaymondrelateshowhewasupbraidedbytheoldvillagecobblerHezekiahHobbesfor
havingnailedahorseshoetohiscottagedoor.‘Butwhateverbroughtyourmindtonail
suchauselessthingasthat‘ponyourdoor?’asksHobbes.Raymondexplainsthathe
merelyputittherelight‐heartedly,asitusedtobeacustomtokeepwitchesaway.
Hobbestuts,‘‘tisapoorexampletoothers,allthesame.Itmaymeanlittletoyouand
me.Butconsiderthis.Whatmusttheignorantthinktoseeitthere?’Raymond,shamed
bythissternenlightenedreprimand,embarrassedathisthoughtlessencouragementof
superstitionthroughhis‘antiquarianwhim’,promisestotakeitdown,andexpresses
surprisethatanybodyintheneighbourhoodstillbelievedinwitchcraft.Heisastonished
atHobbes’response:
‘Wha‐a‐at?’
Hisinterruptionwasloudandsudden,andheleanedforward,quiveringwith
excitement.
‘Dopeoplebelieveit,then?’
‘Don’tyou?’
‘No.’
‘NotbelieveinwhatismentionedintheWord?’
ForHobbes,itwasthenotionthatahorseshoehadanypoweroverwitchesthatwas
nonsense–nottheexistenceofwitches Raymond1906,41‐51 .2
Hobbes’sreferenceto‘theWord’highlightsanimportantelementofnineteenth‐
centurypopularjustificationforbelievingintheevilsofwitchcraft–‘itisintheBible.’
RuthUpcottresortstoitinherreveriesonherfamily’smisfortunes:‘witchcraftis
mentionedintheBible,thereforeonemustbelieveinittosomeextent’ Raymond1893,
9 .InhisethnographicworkRaymondalsorecordedaconversationwithacarterwho
opined,‘nowadayszomedozaythereiddennowitches.Ibezorryfor‘em.Theymidha’
otherbook‐larnen.Buttheycan’tbelavethescripshurs’ Raymond1928,171 .There
weretwomainbiblicalpassagesthatwerepointedoutbythe‘commonfolk’when
challengedbyclergymen,oranyotheroftheir‘betters’whopatronizedthembysaying
thebeliefinwitchcraftwasfoolish.First,therewasthearchetype,the‘WitchofEndor’
whocalleduptheghostoftheprophetSamuelin1Samuel28.Thentherewasthe
deadlycommandintheKingJames’Bible,Exodus22:18:‘thoushaltnotsufferawitch
tolive’ Davies1999,105;Davies2013,65‐66 .Inasocietythatwasbecoming
predominantlyliterate,thatcouldreadtheBiblewhichallGod‐fearingEnglishmenand
womenweremeanttoreadandguidetheirlivesby,itwasatallordertothentryand
arguethatthereferencestowitchesweremattersofmistranslationandmetaphor.
LikeHardybeforehim,Raymondmadefictionalreferencetothestrongregional
bewitchmenttraditionofhag‐riding.Thisnocturnaltormentisactuallyamedically
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recognizedsleepdisturbanceepisodethatwasalsotheoriginoftheterm‘nightmare’
themareormarabeingafemalespiritthatoppressespeopleatnight .Peoplewakeup
duringaREMsleepepisodeandfindtheirmusclesparalyzedwhiletheircentral
nervoussystemishyperactive,sothattheycanseeandhearandfeelpain.The
experienceofparalysisisaccompaniedbyafeelingofpressureonthechest,andinthe
twilightzonebetweensleepandwakefulnessvisualandauditoryhallucinationsoccur.
Theexperiencewasandisterrifying,andinacultureoffearregardingwitchcraft,
hallucinationsofneighboursorrelativesduringhag‐ridingepisodesledtoaccusations
ofwitchcraft.Atleastfivenineteenth‐centurySomersetcourtcasesinvolvingtheassault
orabuseofsuspectedwitchesderivedfromtheexperienceofbeinghag‐ridden Davies,
1996;Davies1999ab;Davies2003 .InNoSoulaboveMoneyMalachiWebbcomplains
ofbeing‘hag‐rod’.JacobHandsfordreportsthat,‘Hedotalkloudthatsomebodyhavea‐
witchedun–he!He!–an’docomean’rideaho’seback’ponthechestofun,evernight
ofhislife,soashecan’tsleepawink’ Raymond1899ab,129 .Amoredetailed,graphic
accountisdepictedinLoveandQuietLife:
Abrahamwashag‐rodeverynightofhislifeabouttwo‘inmarnen.’Awitchcameon
a‘dree‐laggedmilkenstool,an’sot‘ponAbraham’schest,asAbrahammidbea‐lying
onthebacko’unlike.’WhethersheturnedAbrahamonhisbacklikeasheep,or
whetherhemightbesolyingatthetime,wasmorethanhecouldswear.Buthe
couldtakehisoathtothethree‐leggedmilkingstool.Fortheoldhagwouldn’tsit
still.Shebumpedupanddownforalltheworldasifshewereridingatrot.Shehad
a‘tait’uponthatstool,andwhenittiltedupononelegyouwouldhavethoughtit
wasa‘teddydibble’runningbetweenyourribs.Butthemostwonderfulestthing
was,thatwhenAbrahamawokeallinasweatandhischestsosoreasifhewere
blackandblue‐therewasnothing!ThistreatmenthadmadeAbrahammost
terriblebadinhisinside,andbroughtonasortofhesitation‐likeinhisstomach,so
thathepitchedawayandgotsopoorthathewerelittlebetterthanashadow,and
sangtheAmensinavoice‘sohoa’seasacrow.’Andifthatwasn’toldGrammer,‘tes
averyfunnything. Raymond1894,205 3
InHardy’s‘TheWitheredArm’RhodaBrook’snightmare,whichconsistsoftheyoung,
silk‐gownedGertrudeLodgesittingonherchestandsuffocatingher,Lodge’sfeatures
‘shockinglydistorted’,ispresentedintonesofGothichorror.Raymond,ontheother
hand,takesalighter,morecolourfulapproach,whileneverthelessdescribingwellthe
deepdiscomfortofhag‐ridingattacks.RaymondreturnedtotheconditioninhisExmoor
novelRevenuesoftheWicked 1911 ,wheretheheroineTamsinistoldasachildthat
‘witchescan’tcomeandhag‐ride‘pongoodlittlegirls,iftheydoneverforgettokneel
downan’saytheirprayersaforetheydojumpintobed’:
Matthew,Mark,Luke,andJohn,
BlessthebedthatIlieon.
Sixangelsaboutmybed,
Twotofootan’twotohead,
An’twotocarr’mewhenIbedead. Raymond1911,104 .
Thiswasavariationonawidespreadprayer‐charmusedtowardoffnight‐timeterrors.
SamuelTaylorColeridge 1772‐1834 ,forinstance,explainedtoafriend,‘ThisprayerI
saidnightly,andmostfirmlybelievedthetruthofit.FrequentlyhaveI half‐awakeand
half‐asleep,mybodydiseasedandfeveredbymyimagination ,seenarmiesofugly
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thingsburstinginuponme,andthesefourangelskeepingthemoff’ Coleridge1895,1:
13 .
Forthosewhoexperiencedsleepparalysisandattributedittowitchcraft,one
certainwayofcombattingitwastodrawbloodfromthesuspectedwitchtobreakthe
spell.InDecember1874,forexample,HesterAdams,aseventy‐two‐year‐oldwidowof
Lympsham,wasprosecutedforstabbingMariaPring,agedforty‐three,inthehandand
face.Adamstoldthemagistrate,‘Icanprovesheisanoldwitch,andshehashag‐rided
meandmyhusbandforthepasttwoyears’ Davies1999ab,132‐33 .Numeroussuch
casesoccurredintheWestCountryduringthenineteenthcentury.Hardyreferredto
thepracticeinReturnoftheNativewhereSusanNunsuchpricksEustaciaVyewitha
knittingneedleinchurchinordertodrawbloodandtherebybreakthespellshe
believesVyehasputonherson.Raymond’sonescratchingscene,inLoveandQuietLife,
ismorelightheartedagaininitsvernacularexpression,andconcernstheyouthful
maliciouspranksplayedonthewitch‐likeGrammerSandboy.On‘panshardday’
ShroveTuesday Josiahandhisfriendsthrowstonesandpotsherdsathercottage
door.ThiswastheShrovetideWestCountrycustomoflent‐crockingorpansharding,
whenboyspeltedthehomesofunpopularneighboursorthosewhorefusedthem
charity Hutton1996,165‐67 .Whensheopensthedoormutteringmaledictionsagainst
‘themtwoadso’bwoys’oneofthepotsherdsgrazesherforeheadanddrawsthe
‘leastestdrapo’blood.’Josiahisrelievedbecausehaving‘a‐drawedblood’hethinkshe
willbefreefromherspellsforever.
RaymondmadelessuseofcunningfolkthanHardy seeWhite2010 , despite
theirbeingsignificantfiguresinruralWestCountrylife.Thisissomewhatsurprising
consideringtherewerenumeroussuchpractitionersaroundinRaymond’stime,suchas
theTaunton‐basedBillyBrewerwhowasfamedthroughoutmuchofSomersetandEast
Devon;JamesStaceythe‘WizardofSouthPetherton’;MotherHerneofCharlton
Horethorne;andFrederickCullifordofCrewkerne.Thelatteralsoheldsurgeriesforhis
clientsatYeovilmarketaroundthetimeRaymondwaslivingthere.Raymondwas
neverthelesswellawareoftheinfluenceofcunning‐folk,andinhisvolumesofanecdote
andreminiscencerelatedtwoaccountsoftheiractivitiesastoldtohimbycarters.There
areafewbriefreferenceshereandthereinhisnovels,suchaswhenMalachiWebbis
saidtohavevisiteda‘wisemanuptoBlackford’tohavethewitchcraftremoved.The
wisemanpromisestolayWebb’stroublesintheRedSea Raymond1899ab,128‐29 .
OneofRaymond’sethnographicconversationsalsoreferstothisRedSeatradition,with
acarterrelatinghisexperienceofavisittoacunning‐manwholived‘atacross‐roads
notmor’‘anamileouto’Yeovil‐town’.‘Yourwifeisauverlooked’,hetoldthecarter.‘I
candrowndwhatdodoitintheRedZay’ Raymond1928,173;seealsoRaymond1907,
121‐22 .In1810theSomersetdialectpoetJamesJennings 1772‐1833 ,notedthe
notionthatanassemblyofcunning‐mencouldconjuretroublesomespiritstotheRed
Seawas‘wellknowninthecountyofSomerset’ citedinBinding&Wilson2010,63 .
RaymondknewJennings’swork,andhemayhaveborrowedthetraditionfromhim,but
theRedSeatraditionwasquitewidespreadinpopularculture,aswellashavinga
venerableliteraryhistory,havingbeencitedinJosephAddison’sTedworthDrummer
1715 andMatthewLewis’ssuccessfulGothicnovelTheMonk 1796 Davies2007,
76;BindingandWilson2010,62‐68 .InSomersetandelsewhereduringRaymond’s
day,itwasmorecommonforRedSeaspirit‐layinglegendstoconcernclergymenwho
exorcisethespiritsratherthancunning‐folkwhoconjurethemaway.InRuthTongue’s
SomersetFolklore,forinstance,thereisastoryoftwelveclergymenwhobanishthe
spiritofawickedoldfarmer.Sopowerfulwasthespiritthatapregnantwomanhadto
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attendtheexorcism,thepurityoftheunbornchildprovidingtheextraboosttopackthe
spiritofftotheMiddleEast Tongue1965,106‐107 .
Whiletheprofessionalandoftenprosperoussortofcunning‐folkwhomadetheir
principallivelihoodfrommagicandcalledthemselveswizardsanddoctorswerelargely
absentfromRaymond’sfictionalrepertoire,hewaskeenonamoreambiguousfigure,
themarginal,elderly,femalefigurewhostraddledtheboundarybetweenwisewoman
andstereotypicalwitch.SoinLoveandQuietLife,setintheBridgwater‐Cheddararea,
wefindGrammerSandboy,apoorelderlywomanof‘witch‐likeways’froman
unpopularfamily,wholivesamakeshiftexistencefromthehedgerows,fields,and
woods,andreceivescharity.Sharp‐tonguedandproneto‘mutteringmaledictions’,she
‘awakenedfearseveninfolkwhodisclaimedbeliefinwitchcraft’ Raymond1894,204 .
InRevenuesoftheWickedthenatureofsuchfiguresisdelineatedinmoredetailinthe
figureofoldAuntTitcomb,thewisewomanofEddyford:‘manypeoplebelievedherto
beawitch.Perhapsshewasneitherwisenorasorceress,butonlycunningenoughto
makethemostofherreputation’:
AuntTitcombnotonlycarriedaheadfulofwonderfulandsecretthings,butawide
experiencehadtaughthermuchofhumannature.Hermeansoflivingpuzzled
everybody.Somesaidshemustbehalfstarved.Othersthatshehadmoneyhidden
awayandoughtnottobeallowedparishrelief.Butwithheroldageshehadfounda
shrewdandbittertongue,whichfearedneitherhighnorlow.Therichencouraged
herforthesakeofhearinghertalk.Thehumblewerecarefulnottooffendherfor
fearofwhatshemightbeabletodo.Soshedidandsaidassheliked. Raymond
1911,152 Thistypeofambivalentcharacter,whichsomeconsideredawitchandothersawise
woman,hadliteraryprecedence.HardydepictedthefigureofElizabethEndorfield
notethesuggestivesurname ,inUndertheGreenwoodTree 1872 ,andfellow
regionalnovelistSabineBaring‐GouldcreatedTamsinMorideginMrsCurgenvenof
Curgenven 1893 ,who‘probablyonaccountofherpeculiardouble‐irisedeyes,but
alsobecauseofthesolitudeofherlife,farawayfromallneighbours,wasregardedasa
wisewoman’ Baring‐Gould1893,75 .Butsuchcharacters,stereotypicallybutnot
alwayselderlywidowswholivedmarginaleconomicandsociallives,whowere
bestowedwithlooksordemeanourthatreinforcedtheimpressionofwitchynessor
unusualinnatepower,andwhosometimesindulgedinfortune‐tellingandcharming,
werepartofthefabricofrealvillagelifeandneighbourhoodpsycho‐socialdynamics.
Baring‐Gouldwroteaboutandpublishedaphotographofonesucheccentriccharacter
calledoldMariannVoaden,whomheknewwellduringhisyearsinDevon.Shelivedina
tumbledowncottage,possessedhealingcharms,andwasresortedtoforthecureof
simpleailments.‘Howshesubsistedwasapuzzletothewholeparish’,wroteBaring‐
Gould.‘But,then,shewasgenerallyfeared.Shereceivedpresentsfromeveryfarmand
cottage.Sometimesshewouldmeetachildcomingfromschool,andstayit…fixingher
wilddarkeyeonit’ Baring‐Gould1898,1‐5;1908,75‐8 .
Itisclearfromhisnon‐fictionwritingthatRaymondwasdrawinguponpersonal
experienceandnotjustreceivedliterarytropesindepictingGrammerSandboyandold
AuntTitcomb,butinhistoricaltermswehavetomakedistinctionsbetween‘witch‐like’
womenandthosewhowereactuallypubliclyaccusedofandabusedforwitchcraft.A
surveyofnineteenth‐centurySomersetwitchcraftdisputes,includingtwenty‐sixthat
wereheardincourt,revealsthatfewofthoseaccusedlookedlikestereotypical
witches—afactthatwassometimeremarkeduponbyjournalistsreportingthecases.
8
Theycouldbeyoungwomen,middle‐agedneighbours,membersofthesamefamily,
maleworkcolleagues,andpeopleaccusedoutofthebluebecausetheyhappenedto
comeknockingatthewrongmomentwhenawitch‐detectionritualwascarriedout
Davies1999ab .These‘real’witchesrarelyappearinruralnovels,andtheclosest
RaymondgetsismillerBiddlecombeinGentlemanUpcott’sDaughter.Inhis
reminiscencematerial,though,wefindaparticularlymovingandinsightfulportrayalof
anaccusedwitchwiththepseudonymElizabethButts.Heencountersherontheroadas
shegrazeshergoats.Raymond’sgentleinterestleadstoherunburdeninghersadness
andbitterness:‘Izaidtomyselflikehere’sonethatwontgoaboutan’yappy,ifIdotell
unmysecretthoughts’.Shedidnotplaythewitchorwisewoman,didnotbeg,threaten,
orinsinuate.Shewasconsideredoddforkeepinggoats,butnothingelsemarkedher
out:‘TheydozayIbeawitch’.Sheexplained:
Therewasawickeddrinkenvellertoldupliesaboutme.Voryearsan’yearsI’vea
turnedmyheadawayvromeverybody....Iwurliketherestonce.Isetmyheart
‘ponamanbutitcomedtonothen.ThenIdidgooouta‐nurse‐tendenvoryears.But
Icouldn’tkiponwi’it.Icould’nkipona‐bringenchildrenintoth’wordle–vorother
wimmen.’ Raymond1928,117‐22 .
Historicity
Raymondwasapoorhistoricalnovelistinthesensethathedidlittletocaptureor
weaveintohisplotstheinfluenceofwidersocial,economic,religious,andpolitical
developmentsonpeople’severydayrurallives,eveninIntheSmokeofWar 1896 ,
whichplaysoutduringtheCivilWar.Threeofhisnovels,TwoMeno’Mendip,NoSoul
aboveMoney 1899 ,anditssequelJacobandJohn 1905 ,aresetintheearly
eighteenthcentury,thoughapartfromsomeplaywiththeSouthSeaBubbleinthe
latter’splot,forexample,therearefewtouchesthatareredolentofthetime.Froma
socio‐historicalandpopularbeliefperspective,NoSoulaboveMoneyisalittlemore
interesting.TheeventstakeplacearoundthetimeofQueenAnne’sWar 1702‐13 .The
earlyeighteenth‐centurysettingischosenbecausethestoryisbasedonthelegendof
JackWhite’sGibbet.In1730JackWhitemurderedaman hisbrother,accordingto
somesources formoneyatacrossroadsontheroadfromWincantontoCastleCary,
nearBrattonSeymour.ThomasHardyknewofthelegendsthatspranguparoundthe
caseandrecordedinhisdiaryfor1882thatWhite’sgibbetwasstillstandinginthe
1830s Dyke1833,4:334‐47;Irving1922;Hardy2007,156 .Oneoftheselegends,
whichRaymonduses,isthatwhenWhitetouchedthecorpseofhisvictim hisbrother itbegantobleed—asuresignofhisguilt.Thisquasi‐officialformofjudicialordeal
continuedintotheearlyeighteenthcentury.In1736,forexample,newspapersreported
thatamaninLondonhadrecentlybeenacquittedofshootinghiswifeafterthejury
suggestedheundergotheordeal.Nobloodappearedwhenheheldherhandsand
kissedherseveraltimes Gaskill2000,227‐29 .
ThemostfrequenttemporallocationforRaymond’snovels,though,wasthefirst
fewdecadesoftheearlynineteenthcentury.LoveandQuietLifedepictsvillagelifeand
religiouscontroversysetaroundtheCatholicEmancipationquestionandtheSwing
Riots.ThestoryofGentlemanUpcott’sDaughterplaysoutinthe1820s.Raymondwas
notalone.Mostlatenineteenth‐andearlytwentieth‐centuryruralnovelsportraying
witchcraftbeliefsweresetinthisperiod,suchasMaryWebb’sPreciousBane,and
Hardy’s‘TheWitheredArm’,whichwasvaguelyplacedintheperiodofagrarianunrest
around1830.Thereisnoevidencethatthesestoriesweresetseveralgenerationsback
primarilybecausetheauthorswantedtopresentwitchcraftasafearfulrealityofthe
9
pastandnotthepresent.Numerousothernovelsofthegenrewhichhavenocontent
regardingpopularwitchcraftandmagicwerealsosetintheperiod,suchasEmma
Marshall’sSomersetnovelUndertheMendips:ATale 1892 whichissetagainstthe
ReformBillriotsof1831.
Yetthereisnodoubtthatwitchcraftwasausefuldeviceforprovidingasenseof
period.Itsefficacyinthisrespectwasdependentontherebeingasharedperception
thatthebeliefwasanintegralaspectofthe‘vanishingcountryside’andnotthe
present—ofawayoflifethatwasconsideredtohavebeeninrudehealthintheearly
yearsofthenineteenthcentury,butnowlargelyirrelevant.Thesenseofculturalgulf
betweenGeorgianandlateVictoriantimesisfurtherreinforcedwithsuchdistancing
phrasesas‘inthosedays’whenreferringtopopularcustomsandnotions.Thiswasnot
onlyanovelistictendency.Theautodidactruralworking‐classautobiographersofthe
secondhalfofthenineteenthcenturyusedwitchcraftand‘superstition’asmarkersof
thedistancethey,andsocietyingeneral,hadprogressedfromthedaysoftheir
grandparentsortheirownyouth.Thisprojectionofwitchcraftintothepastwas
sometimesreinforcedbythe‘commonfolk’interviewedbyfolkloristsduringthelate
nineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies.Somefolkloriststookatfacevaluethe
repeatedopinionsofruralintervieweesthat‘thereusedtobeplentyofwitchesabout
here50yearsago’or‘witcheshavealldiedout’,notrealizingthatthiswassometimesa
deliberatetactictoevadeexpressingtheirbeliefinwitchesinthepresent Waters
2014 .Therefore,theimpulsetolocatewitchcraftaccusationstwogenerationsearlier
waspervasive.Ifwereadfictionasfictionthensuchtemporalwarpingisnot
problematic,butifwewishtosqueezeRaymond’snovelsforhistoricalinsightthenitis.
ReadRaymond’snovelsandethnographicreminiscencesanditisclearthatheconflated
hisethnographicexperienceinthepresentwiththeruralidyllofthepast.Otherthanan
absenceofreferencetotherailways,the1820sworldofGentlemanUpcott’sDaughter
couldeasilyreplicatelifein1880sSomerset.Everythinghewantedtoexpressabout
ruralSomersetlifecouldhavebeendoneinacontemporarysetting.
In1921adisillusionedRaymondwroteinaletter,‘Oldcountrylifehasgone...I
havenoidyllicinstinctsleft’.Hehadbythistimelargelystoppedwriting.Therustic
worldhelovedhad,tohiseyesandmind,beenruinedanderasedbymechanization,by
‘rapidlocomotion’.‘Untilthewhitesteamfromthechimneyofthe“Billy‐puffer”wasto
beseenfromthehilltakingitscoursealongthevalleythepastoralvillagewasasremote
asthemoorland’ Clark1933,191 .Oneresponseoftheruralromanticmighthavebeen
toimmersehimselffurtherinthefictionalrecreationofthecomfortingidyllicpastof
the1820s.ButRaymond’sdisillusionmentandabandonmentofhisliterarycareer
showsjusthowmuchhishistoricalnovelswereeffectivelynovelsofcontemporary
rurallife.Hecouldwritenomorebecausethesourceofhisinspirationhadfinallybeen
crushedbythebulldozerofmodernity,orsoheperceived.
AccordingtoRaymond,‘superstitions’ofallkindshadflourishedupuntil1914,
butbytheendoftheFirstWorldWartheyhadevaporated.Yet,thesourcesindicate
magicalcharmsandremediescontinuedtobeusedbymanySomersetfolkafter1918,
andwitchcraftwasstillquitewidelybelievedininSomersetduringRaymond’sfinal
years.HisfriendEvelynClarkwrotein1932that‘beliefinwitchcraftandalltherestof
it—stillsurvivesinSomerset.Ihavelatelyheardstoriesofwitchcraftwhichwere
undoubtedlybelievedinbythenarrator’ Clark1932,4 .Somersetcourtscontinuedto
dealwithwitchcraftdisputesintothe1920s.In1926theGlastonburyPettySessions,
heardthecaseofAlbertMarsh,aseventy‐seven‐year‐oldresidentinthelocal
almshousewhoaccusedthehusbandofanotherresident,SarahWilkins,ofvisitinghim
10
asawitchinspiritform.SarahWilkinsassaultedhimformakingsuchaccusations.As
Marshtoldthemagistrate,‘Itoldherherhusbandcametomyhomeasawitch,andso
hedid.Iwassittinginthechair,hecamewithhisfacetome.Ispatatit,andwentatit,
andhewentawaylikeaballofsmoke’.WhenaskedhowheknewitwasMrWilkins,
Marshreplied,‘becauseoftheheadandbeard.Therewasnothingelsebutthat’
‘WitchcraftinSomerset’1926 .In1929along‐standingdisputebetweentwo
neighbours,theSheppardsandtheLocks,wholivedonthepeatmoorsbetween
LangportandAller,eruptedinanaccusationofwitchcraft.TheSheppards,like
GentlemanUpcottandMalachiWebb,hadexperiencedaseriesofmisfortunes.Theyhad
losttwohorsesandacow,andGeorgehadbeenillforawhile.Onthe25Aprilthey
encounteredReubenLockastheyreturnedfrommilkingtheircowsonthemoor.
Georgeshouted‘You!Youhag‐riding____andyour____hag‐ridingoldwife’,tookthe
yokeholdinghismilkpailsfromaroundhisneckandthreatenedtobeatReuben’shead
withit Davies1999ab,153‐6 .Thesearecasesofruraldisputethatcouldhavecome
straightoutofRaymond’snovelsofearlynineteenth‐centurySomersetlife,but
Raymondceasedliteraryinterestinthembecausehebelievedinthemythofavanished
ruralcustomaryworldthathehadhelpedcreate.
Aswellastemporality,theotherissueofhistoricityraisedbyexploring
Raymond’sworkisthatofrealism.HowclosetotherealityofrurallifewasRaymondin
hisnovels?InhisinnovativecomparisonofHardy’sfictionwiththerealitiesofrural
societyinDorset,KeithSnellconcludesthatHardyby‐passedmanyofthe‘important
buttransientissuesofhisday’,suchasclasstensions,thepoorlaw,insanitary
conditions,andwagedisputes,yetwithregardtofeelingsofpersonalalienationand
maritalestrangementhewasresponsivetothebroadsocialhistoryoftheperiod Snell
1985,chap.8 .4Raymondwasevenlessconcernedwiththe‘issuesoftheday’than
Hardy,andconsequentlyasimilarexercisetothatconductedbySnellregarding
Somersetwouldbedamning.Whilehepresentedatemperedidyllwithrespectto
intimatepsychologicalmiserybornofmiserliness,neighbourlyjealousy,andobsession
withmoney,Raymonddeclinedtoexploreenvironmentalandmacro‐levelhardships.
Despiteatyphoidepidemickillinghismotherandsisterandnearlytakinghimtoo,
Raymondwasnotinterested,forinstance,indepictingthepoorsanitaryconditionsand
theresultingepidemicsinthevillageshewasfamiliarwith,suchasthediphtheria
outbreakinCorfein1881.Hewasnaïveinhisviewoftheimmobilityoftherural
Somersetpopulationandthedegreeofpopulationmovementinthecountypriortothe
railways.Thecensusrevealsthatthesnailmerchanthewroteabout,andwhosespeech
heexpressedinaSomersetaccent,hadbeenborninArlesey,Bedfordshire,andhiswife
inSuffolk.
Ofcourse,asSnellrecognized,duringtheyearsHardywaswritingnovelshewas
drivenbyhisartandnotthepurposeofrealism,andsotoowasRaymondinhismore
modestway.Theproblemariseswhentheruralidyllistsexpresslyarguedthatthey
wereaimingforrealityratherthanaverisimilitude.In1912,Hardywrotethathehad
attemptedtoproduce‘afairlytruerecordofavanishinglife’,andlikewiseyearsafterhe
stoppedwritingnovelsRaymondwrotehowheandothershadattemptedtocapture
what‘onlythosewhoare“upinyears”’couldrememberabout‘theoldworldandits
folk,theirancientcustomsandtheiroriginalways’ Plietzsc2004,41;Clark1933,187 .
Thatmemorywaspartial.Butweareconcernednotwiththesocio‐economicrealismof
HardyandRaymondhere,buttheissueofwitchcraftbeliefandbeliefs.
Ashasbeenexplored,Raymond’sworkissuccessfulinaccuratelyreflecting
aspectsofregionalwitchcraftbeliefandthedynamicsofwitchaccusations.Inthis
11
respecthisidyllsprovideadegreeofrealismaboutrurallifethatZola’sharsh
DarwinianportrayalinLaTerredoesnot.LaTerrebringsyouclosetothepoverty,class
tensions,andbrutalityofagriculturallabouringlives,butislargelydevoidoftheidiom,
beliefs,andcustomarypracticesthatwereintegraltothatexistence.Still,Raymond’s
portrayalisdeeplymoderatedbyhisromanticism.Heexpressedthelonelinessofthose
accusedofwitchcraftinhisdepictionsofmillerBiddlecombeandhisaccountof
ElizabethButts,butnowheredidheexploretheviciousness,deadliness,psychological
terror,tragedy,andlegalconsequencesthatensuedfromaccusations—thesuicides,the
beatings,thementalillness,andevenmurder.Considertheprosecutionin1905of
FrancesJaneSmith,ofPitminster,forthreateningtostabanotherwoman.Itemerged
thatsheandherhusbandhadfarmedatHoniton,Devon,untiltheylostagooddealof
theircattle.Somegypsiestoldthemthattheyhadbeenbewitchedandthattheonlyway
toprotectthemselvesfromthewitchwasforFrancestowearvarioustrinkets,cheap
rings,andcuriousgarb,forwhichsheevidentlypaidthegypsiesconsiderablesumsof
money.Well‐educated,Francesandherhusbandspentmuchoftheirsavingsinthisway
sothathewasnowworkingasafarmlabourer.Francestooktodrinkandhermental
statedeterioratedunderthefearandobsession.Shehadbecomeapeculiarsightinthe
locality,wearinghertam‐o’shanterdecoratedwithlargecolouredfeathers,alarge
checkjacketandorangedress,whilearoundherneckhunganironpadlockandapairof
scissors.FromherwaistdangledbrightlycolouredragsandabitoftheUnionJack.The
courthadherremovedtoCotfordasylum TauntonCourier,6September1905;
WesternTimes,5September1905 .Elevenyearslater,PhilipGeorgeHill,agedfifty‐
two,afarmeratEdithmead,Burnham,shotdeadhiseighty‐one‐year‐oldneighbour
DanielLawrenceforbewitchinghim.ThisisasadSomersetclaimtofame;itistheonly
caseofwitch‐shootinginBritain,thoughsuchcaseshavebeenwellrecordedin
twentieth‐centuryAmericaandFrance.Hilltoldthearrestingofficer,‘Ihavealotof
worryhere.Hehasbewitchedmychildandmypony.Youdon’tbelieveinwitchcraft,
andtheGovernmentdon’t,butIdo’.FoundguiltyattheAutumnAssizes,Hillwas
declaredtobeofunsoundmindwhenhecommittedtheact TauntonCourier,25
October1916 .
Whilewitchcraftgaveauthenticitytothepast,toomuchauthenticitywouldhave
underminedtheidyll.Neitherdidthecontinuanceofwitchcraftbeliefandaccusations
fitthemodelofavanishedworld.RaymondwasnotwronginstatingthattheSomerset
countryside,andthelivesofthecommunitieswholivedinit,werebeingtransformed
duringhislifetime.Mechanization,theglobalizationoffoodproduction,sanitary
regulations,andothersocialandeconomicdevelopmentswerecreatingnewrealities.
Witchcrafttoowasbecominglessrelevant,inpartbecauseofthesechanges.The
frustrationisthatRaymonddidnotapplyhisknowledge,compassion,andsensibilities
torepresentingthisinallitsrichcomplexityinhisworkratherthanreinforcinga
verisimilitudeoftheidealizedruralpast.
Notes
1.ThisarticleistheresultofaninterdisciplinarycollaborativeprojectfundedbyaBritish
AcademySmallGrant.WethanktheBritishAcademy,andtheprojectresearcherGregory
Leadbetter.Wealsothankthehelpfulcommentsofthejournal’sreviewers.
2.RaymondtoldaversionofthisencountertohisfriendEvelynClark Clark1932,5 .
3.Raymondattributesthesamebasicdetailstoacobblerofhisacquaintanceinalaterbookof
reminiscences Raymond1906,50 .
12
4.ForacritiqueseePlietzsc2004.
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BiographicalNotes
OwenDaviesisProfessorofSocialHistoryattheUniversityofHertfordshire,andhas
publishedwidelyonthehistoryofwitchcraft,magicandghosts.
SimonWhiteisReaderinRomantic&Nineteenth‐CenturyLiteratureattheUniversity
ofHertfordshire.Heworksontherepresentationofrurallifeandtheruralcommunity,
particularlywithregardtowitchcraftandmagic.
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