PORTFOLIO TABLE OF CONTENTS
Sample: My Resume ............................................................................. 3
Sample: College Entrance Essay .............................................................. 4
Sample: Healthcare Informatics in the News Short Paper ............................... 7
Sample: Health Information Technology Short Paper .................................... 11
Sample: Website Review ...................................................................... 15
Sample: Annotated Bibliography ............................................................. 19
Sample: Relational Database System Design ............................................... 23
Sample: Personas ............................................................................... 55
Sample: Heuristic Evaluation ................................................................. 58
Sample: Term Paper - EMI in Wireless Networks in Hospitals ........................ 115
Sample: Final Paper - Significant Influential Factors Affecting Health Information
Technology Diffusion and Infusion......................................................... 146
Sample: PowerPoint Presentation ......................................................... 166
Sample: Use Case ............................................................................. 172
Sample: UML Class Diagram and Domain Model ......................................... 180
Sample: Press Release ....................................................................... 184
Sample: Instructions.......................................................................... 187
Sample: Feasibility Study ................................................................... 190
Sample: Process Description ................................................................ 202
Sample: Documentation Plan for an SOP ................................................. 205
Sample: Standard Operating Procedure .................................................. 208
Sample: Documentation Plan for Tutorial ................................................ 221
Sample: Usability Test Plan and Results .................................................. 224
Sample: Tutorial .............................................................................. 229
Sample: Request for Proposal .............................................................. 248
Sample: Healthcare Informatics Evaluation Proposal .................................. 256
Sample: My Resume
Lisa Romanoski
1040 Mason Street, Apt. 102, San Francisco, CA 94108 • 415-264-4401 • [email protected]
HEALTH
INFORMATICS
PROFESSIONAL
Health informatics graduate student with excellent ability to multitask and work collaboratively on
mulitiple projects and communicate across disciplines in a fast-paced, deadline-oriented,
environment, with attention to detail, schedules, budgets, and stakeholder satisfaction.
EDUCATION
MS, Drexel University, Health Informatics, 9/2011 – Present (Graduation Date: June 2013):
Foundations of Information Systems
Human-Computer Interaction
п‚· Concepts/applications of IS/IT
п‚· User-oriented approach to design/evaluation
Introduction to Database Management
п‚· Database design, data manipulation and
integrity maintenance, SQL queries
IS Analysis & Design
п‚· Object-oriented analysis and design techniques
based on UML
Distributed Computing and Networking
п‚· Networking planning, design principles,
network protocols, internetworking, and
distributed computing topics
Healthcare Informatics
п‚· Intro to IS applications in healthcare
п‚· Sociotechnical aspects
п‚· Planning and evaluation
Coursework in Technical and Professional Writing, San Francisco State University, 2009
MS, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Ocean Resources Engineering, 2000
BSE, Purdue University, Interdisciplinary Engineering, 1999
EXPERIENCE
Project
Support/
Management
п‚· Conducted design development and contract document work sessions in conjunction with project
managers, appropriate technical professionals, and other disciplines.
п‚· Prepared scopes of work for procurement of subcontracts.
п‚· Prepared cost estimates and project schedules.
п‚· Managed $750K to 5M projects, including review of contractor submittals and requests for
information. Applied fast problem-solving techniques to address issues/avoid change orders.
п‚· Managed multiple contracts with clients and subconsultants simultaneously.
п‚· Prepared meeting minutes for team members and clients.
п‚· Identified and performed trouble-shooting of schedules and cost conflicts.
п‚· Consulted with and adhered to regulatory agencies and associated laws and guidelines.
Technical
Writing
п‚· Prepared: feasibility studies, proposals, technical specifications, memos.
п‚· Synthesis of technical information and interpretations.
 Excellent ability to explain complicated projects in layman’s terms: writing or presentations.
Certifications
п‚· Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI), Human Subjects Research Training, 8/12
п‚· HIPPA and Medical Research and HIPPA Security (Parts I and II), 9/12
п‚· Des Moines University, Medical Terminology, 9/12
WORK
HISTORY
Staff Engineer, Water Resources Engineering, Inc., San Francisco, CA, 9/2010 – 9/2011
Engineering Consulting Firm
Contractor, Civil Engineer, Innovative Technical Solutions, Walnut Creek, CA, 7/2009 – 11/2009
Engineering / Environmental Consulting Firm
Civil Engineer, Mactec Engineering and Consulting, Inc., Oakland, 2008 – 2009
National Engineering / Environmental Consulting Firm
Civil Engineer, Project Manager, TranSystems Corporation, Oakland, 2006 – 2008
National Transportation Engineering Consulting Firm
Water Resources Engineer, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, San Francisco, 2002 – 2006
AFFILIATIONS
Member, American Medical Informatics Association (AMIA)
Member, Healthcare Information and Management Systems Society (HIMSS)
Portfolio of writing samples and references available.
4
Sample: College Entrance Essay
The following sample is my master’s program entrance essay.
I’ve decided to showcase it here because it exemplifies my
writing style and provides insight to why I’ve decided to change
my career.
Ten years of civil engineering experience in the San Francisco Bay Area is the background I
bring to the Drexel University iSchool Master of Science in Health Informatics Program. While
civil engineering is different from health informatics, both fields involve data compilation,
analysis, and trend identification. I envision building upon this type of work in the graduate
program and then in a new career in a research setting or perhaps assisting on a clinical trial. My
relevant experience and enthusiasm for continual learning and personal achievement is outlined
with a project example from my career, as detailed in the following paragraphs.
The Berkeley Marina Rehabilitation Project is my favorite project that I have worked on
during my career. I joined the project team mid-way through the design phase and brought
myself up to speed on project status and needs. As a construction manager, I watched plans
become reality, addressed unanticipated construction issues stemming from an oil spill, and
focused team efforts on providing the best possible project. Similarly, as I transition into a new
career, I see myself working in a challenging environment that allows me to apply investigative
strategies and problem-solving in an effort to develop new solutions.
The Berkeley project taught me some valuable lessons. The first thing I learned is that
people like to see a tangible product for the money they spend. For example, it was not enough to
say your construction permit is on the way. The City engineer wanted his permit despite a
regulatory agency request for additional environmental testing because of the oil spill, a random
occurrence placing a burden on the client in tough economic times. After negotiating with the
agency, we agreed to a realistic and financially appropriate course of action. I succeeded in
getting the permit with minimal delays to the project schedule.
The second lesson I learned is that if something does not work, it is best to try something
new in an effort to find a solution. During the project, the contractor was unable to drive a
concrete pile in a specified location. Instead of risking damage to an expensive project
component, I worked with our geotechnical engineer and the contractor to determine an
alternative location. We also had to adjust how the rest of our project pieces fit with this new pile
position. From this experience, I learned to be more flexible and adaptable to changing
situations. While I did not know the answer to the problem, a combined team work effort
resulted in a solution with minimal charges to my client.
The third lesson I learned is that once the project ends, it is time to apply knowledge gained
to new, exciting endeavors. While most companies have multiple projects on-going in various
stages of development, sometimes they never receive funding, experience delays, or are
canceled. This leads to instability, employee layoffs, and overwhelming competition among a lot
of experienced engineers. After being laid off due to lack of work at three companies, I have
decided to pursue a career change to health informatics, an area that I anticipate will be
challenging, rewarding, and have a greater hiring and job retention capacity. I hope to build upon
the skills and lessons learned from past experience and bring a different perspective to the
program and health care field.
7
Sample: Healthcare Informatics in the News Short Paper
This sample was prepared for Drexel INFO 648, Healthcare
Informatics. Details for this course are as follows:
Description
The course presents an overview of all aspects of healthcare informatics, including
medical, nursing and bioinformatics. It provides an introduction to the applications
of information systems in a variety of healthcare environments, including education,
research and clinical settings. It includes extensive reading and critical discussion of
relevant professional research literature.
Course Objectives
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
Describe how standards and structures affect the expression, collection,
manipulation and representation of data and information in biomedicine and
public health
Describe the role of decision support in healthcare
Articulate and give examples of sociotechnical issues in healthcare informatics
Demonstrate the ability to evaluate informatics tools, systems and applications
used in healthcare
Discuss the effect of privacy and security regulations on the development and
implementation of informatics applications in healthcare
Describe recent developments in bioinformatics and be able to conduct a basic
search in a bioinformatics database
Critically discuss current research literature in healthcare informatics
EHR INFLUENCE ON MEDICAL MALPRACTICE LIABILITY
1
Do Electronic Health Records Increase or Decrease Medical Malpractice Liability?
According to InformationWeek’s Paul Cerrato, electronic health records (EHR) have
advantages and disadvantages for clinicians, including fast access to patient health data but also
increased malpractice risk (2011). This discussion summarizes a clinician’s malpractice risk
from EHRs and briefly analyzes whether that risk is elevated or lowered from their use.
One of the most frequently cited studies for the case that EHRs may lower malpractice risks is a
2005 Harvard Medical School study of 1,140 Massachusetts clinicians, of which 6.1% with
EHRs and 10.8% without EHRs had paid malpractice settlements in the preceding 10 years,
according to Managed Care Weekly Digest (2008). In terms of decreasing malpractice risk,
Dembrow (2009) and Terry (2007) report that EHRs provide:
п‚·
Easier, instantaneous, and remote access to records, which may reduce errors
п‚·
More comprehensive records
п‚·
Automatic alerts for things like allergies and drug interactions
п‚·
Improved follow-up capability
п‚·
Better adherence to clinical guidelines provided by decision-support systems
In comparison, Carter (2011), Goldberg (2011), and Terry (2007) report that malpractice
risk can be increased because EHRs:
п‚·
Can go missing due to system crashes, resulting in limited or no access to data
п‚·
Divert attention away from a patient’s signs and symptoms
п‚·
If not consulted, can fail to alert clinicians to all steps required by decision-support systems
п‚·
May not include all aspects of a patient’s medical history
п‚·
May not be used by clinicians
These lists show that EHRs can pose both a benefit and threat to healthcare practices.
One of the reasons for this depends on the stage in which an EHR is in, which can affect its
ability to be useful. According to Mangalmurti et al. (2010), medical malpractice liability exists
throughout the lifetime of an EHR, from initial setup, to regular system use, and to widespread
use as a mature system. For instance, during initial EHR setup, a patient’s health record may still
be a combination of hard copy records and new electronic records. This dual paper and electronic
recording system can cause problems such as failing to alert a physician to the need to notify a
patient, an issue that is more commonplace with dual systems as compared to those that use
EHR INFLUENCE ON MEDICAL MALPRACTICE LIABILITY
2
either hard copy or EHRs (Goldberg, 2011). Documentation gaps or errors caused by inadequate
EHR training can exacerbate the problem (Mangalmurti et al., 2010).
Regardless of an EHR’s evolution within a healthcare practice, using clinical decisionsupport functions can be crucial when it comes to medical liability. Benefits are achieved if a
clinician adheres to decision support reminders and recommendations (Waxman, 2010). Ignoring
them can lead to liability. Because clinicians have these guidelines available to them, they may
be held to a higher standard than those who don’t have access to them (Cerrato, 2011). Not
having an EHR may constitute deviation from the standard of care, which Goldberg (2011)
defines as “what is customary among physicians in the same specialty in similar settings.”
Medical malpractice stems from proving that a defendant caused injuring by not adhering to an
established standard of care (Mangalmurti et al., 2010).
In sum, existing case studies and examples show that EHRs can both increase and lower a
clinician’s malpractice risk. To help bolster support for positive EHR outcomes and eliminate
some of the negative risks of EHR implementation, Carter (2011) recommends funding for a
federal mandate for the nationwide adoption of EHRs and state-by-state statutory protections to
reduce a clinician’s exposure to unreasonable liability. According to Carter (2011) and
Dougherty et al. (2010), multiple stakeholders will need to be involved in the process, including
but not limited to:
п‚·
The clinicians who use the system
п‚·
Health Information Management (HIM) professionals charged with ensuring an official
record of care is compliant, credible, and disclosable for secondary uses
п‚·
Policy makers seeking to improve healthcare
п‚·
Lawmakers who can help address some of the current legal implications of EHRs
Most experts acknowledge the fears associated with EHRs but remain confident that
because they are still in an early stage of development, EHRs will have benefits that overshadow
their risks (Mangalmurti et al., 2010; Terry, 2007).
EHR INFLUENCE ON MEDICAL MALPRACTICE LIABILITY
3
References
Carter, B. (2011). Electronic Medical Records: A Prescription for Increased Medical Liability?
Vanderbilt Journal of Entertainment and Technical Law, 13(2), 385-406.
Cerrato, P. (2011, September 29). Will Your EHR Land You in Court? Retrieved from:
http://www.informationweek.com/news/healthcare/EMR/231602442?queryText=health+
care+informatics
Dembrow, M. (2009, February). Electronic Records Linked to Fewer Malpractice Payouts. Renal
& Urology News, 26.
Dougherty, M., & Washington, L. Still Seeking the Legal HER. Journal of the American Health
Information Management Association, 81(2), 42-45.
Goldberg, D. (2011, February). EHR Expectations. Dermatology Times, 32(2), 8.
Managed Care Weekly Digest (2008, December 8). Harvard Medical School: Electronic Health
Records May Lower Malpractice Settlements, 37.
Mangalmurti, S.S., Murtagh, L., & Mello, M.M. Medical Malpractice Liability in the Age of
Electronic Health Records. The New England Journal of Medicine, 363(21), 2060-2067.
Terry, K. (2007, July 6). Will an HER Affect Your Malpractice Risk? Medical Economics, 5558.
Waxman, S. (2010, June). EHRs Offer Significant Medicolegal Benefits – and Risks: Thorough
Documentation Remains Vital to Avoiding Malpractice Lawsuits. Urology Times, 37(7),
36.
11
Sample: Health Information Technology Short Paper
This sample was prepared for Drexel INFO 648. Course description
and goals are here.
HIT OFFERS BENEFITS; STUDY ASSUMPTIONS UNCERTAIN
1
HIT Offers Improvement to Healthcare Despite Dubious Underlying Study Assumptions
Healthcare information technology (HIT) has been the subject of much debate and study
since the President earmarked $22.6 billion for it in 2009, anticipating it will modernize U.S.
healthcare (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), 2011). This discussion looks
at the benefits of HIT as a means to solve several healthcare issues, beginning with an
introduction to the subject based on a Radio Times talk show interview with Dr. Ashish Jah, and
concludes with my opinions on the subject.
In his interview, Dr. Ashish Jah of Harvard’s School of Public Health informs listeners
about the switch from paper-based medical records to EHRs, citing these benefits: financial
incentives from the government to make the switch; information presentation in an easy-to ready
format; lower costs; the capacity to build an information exchange across locations; treatment
and medication alerts; reduction and/or elimination of duplicate testing; and decision support
based on recent advances in medicine (Moss-Coane, 2009).
While I appreciate Dr. Jah’s discussion points on the HIT benefits, I was more impressed
by callers’ comments and personal experience with EHRs, expressing skepticism about having
enough technological tools available for multiple patient care, concern about privacy, and
appreciation for existing systems that identified crucial information that might have otherwise
gone missing in paper records (Moss-Coane, 2009). It’s easy to research benefits of EHRs in
various publications, but being able to comment from personal experience or highlight other
aspects rarely touched on in the articles I’ve reviewed was more enlightening, realistic, and
practical. New aspects of HIT unfamiliar to me prior to listening to the show include debate on
privatizing or nationalizing the HIT effort and building upon the already existing, “free”
Veterans Administration system (Moss-Coane, 2009). After listening to this broadcast, I remain
convinced that HIT is beneficial and can help solve some healthcare problems.
Additional research findings that support my optimistic feelings about the benefits of HIT
include two studies, one carried out with 72 Texas hospitals and the other focused on analyzing
data from 27 studies conducted throughout the U.S. The Texas study linked reduced mortality,
complications, and costs to greater automation in a hospital (Amarasingham et al., 2009). The
second study showed that electronic prescribing can reduce the risk for medication errors and
adverse drug events (ADE)” (Ammenwerth et al., 2008, p. 585).
HIT OFFERS BENEFITS; STUDY ASSUMPTIONS UNCERTAIN
2
While I remain convinced of the benefits of HIT, I’m slightly more skeptical now than
before I read the articles and listened to Radio Times. My skepticism stems from how people
relate their findings and collectively use them to support their beliefs in support of HIT. At issue
is the fact that people use different study methods to arrive at the same conclusion.
The Texas study used a questionnaire to measure a hospital’s level of automation based
on physician interactions with the system (Amarasingham et al., 2009, p. 108). In the ADE
study, the authors performed a systematic and quantitative review of 27 previously-published
studies (Ammenwerth et al, 2008, p. 590-591).
The Texas study could be construed as a qualitative study: one that gathers information
not in a numerical form, such as unstructured interviews and open-ended questionnaires. In
contrast, a quantitative study gathers data in numerical form for categorization, ranking, and unitbased measurement (Mcleod, 2008). The ADE study seems more like a quantitative study to me.
The Texas study appears to have used a questionnaire and then quantified the answers.
The “danger” of using qualitative and quantitative studies together is that both
approaches do not study the same phenomena and therefore probably shouldn’t be combined for
other purposes (Sale et al., 2002, p. 43). According to Sale et al. (2002), a quantitative approach
is based on positivism, the state or quality of being positive. An investigator can study something
without influencing or being influenced by it (Sale et al., 2002, p. 44). In comparison, a
qualitative approach is based on interpretivism – “there are multiple realities or truths based on
one’s construction of reality” (Sale et al., 2002, p. 45). Sale et al. (2002) state that a “researcher
and the study object are linked so that findings are created within the context of the situation that
shapes the inquiry” (p. 45). Sale et al. (2002) go on to say that “samples are not meant to
represent large populations” so much as they are used to “provide important information” (p. 45).
In light of this information, I’d be apt to do away with Dr. Jah’s interview and the two
journal articles in support of HIT. However, I’m going to set aside my engineer’s intuition and
continue to look at HIT as a layperson looking in on a series of debates and research studies that
say HIT has many benefits. For now I’m in favor of an argument included by Sale et al. in their
quantitative-qualitative debate: “forge ahead with what works” (2002, p. 47); and HIT seems to
be working to solve some serious healthcare issues like medical errors and ADEs.
HIT OFFERS BENEFITS; STUDY ASSUMPTIONS UNCERTAIN
References
Amarasingham, R., Plantinga, L. Diener-West, M., Gaskin, D.J., & Power, N.R. (2009, January
26). Clinical Information Technologies and Inpatient Outcomes: A Multiple Hospital
Study. Archives of Internal Medicine, 169(2), 108-114.
Ammenwerth, E., Schnell-Inderst, P., Machan, C., & Siebert. U. (October 2008). The Effect of
Electronic Prescribing on Medication Errors and Adverse Drug Events: A Systematic
Review. Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association, 15(5), 585-600.
Mcleod, S. (2008). Qualitative Quantitative. Retrieved from:
http://www.simplypsychology.org/qualitative-quantitative.html
Moss-Coane, M. (Producer). (2009, May 11). Ashish Jah on Electronic Health Records.
Philadelphia: WHYY, Inc.
Positivism. (2011). In Dictionary.com online. Retrieved from:
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/positivism
Sale, J.E.M., Lohfeld, L.H., & Brazil, K. Revisiting the Quantitative-Qualitative Debate:
Implications for Mixed-Methods Research. Quality & Quantity, 36, 43-53.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2011). Recovery Act-Funded Programs.
Retrieved from: http://www.hhs.gov/recovery/programs/index.html#Health
3
15
Sample: Website Review
This sample was prepared for Drexel INFO 648. Course description
and goals are here.
REVIEW OF TWO WEIGHT LOSS MEDICATION WEBSITES
1
Credibility Review of Two Weight Loss Medication Websites
Using the Internet to research health information is common practice for millions of
Americans, but organizations like the National Library of Medicine (NLM) urge caution when it
comes to reviewing and accepting content for fact (Medical Library Association (MLA), 2011;
NLM, 2011). Using the NLM’s guidelines, a non-credible and credible weight loss medication
website was reviewed, and results based on publicly available content as of November 13, 2011,
are presented herein.
According to the NLM (2011), a non-credible website may have unknown authors and
references, sponsorship bias, unclear purpose, unlabeled advertisements, outdated information, or
“miracle cure” promises. In contrast, a credible website typically: provides contact information
for its authors, references professionally-accepted medical sources and current research, and
discloses its privacy policy (NLM, 2011). To highlight these differences, an example of a noncredible and credible website on the subject of weight loss medication is presented as follows.
When using search engine
Google to look for information on
“fast weight loss,” fast-weight-losstips.com is an example of one of
the resulting websites. I was
looking for information on weight
loss medication, so I selected the
Diet Pills tab, which presents the
page shown in Figure 1.
No author is cited for the
Figure 1. The Diet Pills page on fast-weight-loss-tips.com
(http://www.fast-weight-loss-tips.com/category/diet-pills/2011).
Lipovox article shown in Figure 1 or
any of the other commentary present on the page. It’s not evident who runs, maintains, and
writes content, as there is no “About Us” informational section or similar identifying criteria. All
articles were written in January 2009. There are no references to medical or other reputable
resources. Hyperlinks appear to be functional (fast-weight-loss-tips.com, 2009).
REVIEW OF TWO WEIGHT LOSS MEDICATION WEBSITES
There are five unlabeled advertisements on the “Diet Pills” tab (fast-weight-losstips.com, 2009). The “As Seen on TV” advertisement in Figure 1 takes a consumer to another
website that attempts to explain why people are fat and offers for a sale a “pro” and “hardcore
elite” version of a fat loss plan (Gudakunst, n.d.).
Based on the defining criteria
previously presented, fast-weightloss-tips.com does not appear to be
credible. In search of greater
credibility, I visited the website
Drugs.com and reviewed the webpage
Weight Loss Medications. Drugs.com
(2011) “provides free, peer-reviewed,
accurate and independent data on
more than 24,000 prescription drugs,
over-the-counter medicines and
natural products.” The purpose of the
Figure 2. The Weight Loss Medication page on Drugs.com
(http://www.drugs.com/condition/weight-loss.html, 2011).
Weight Loss Medications page, its references, and how its information should and should not be
used is clearly stated. The page provides active hyperlinks to additional information and to the
website’s certificate of compliance with the Health on the Net (HON) Code of Conduct, a nonfee certification provided by independently-operated HON Foundation (Drugs.com, 2011; HON
2011). HON reviews websites to verify that they attempt to publish objective, transparent,
quality medical information (HON, 2011).
In conclusion, I’d use Drugs.com because it clearly states its sources and limitations.
While HON certification is reassuring, it’s not going to persuade me to use one website over
another. I rely on multiple information sources, so Drugs.com would be one of several sources
I’d consult. I consider fast-weight-loss-tips.com less credible because it does not cite sources or
references. Its advertisements are shoddy in appearance and content, indicating a lack of
professionalism and misuse of a desktop illustration program to present misleading before and
after results. Quality and professionalism matter, and Drugs.com achieves these standards by
choosing to use clear language and provide full disclosure of all information presented.
2
REVIEW OF TWO WEIGHT LOSS MEDICATION WEBSITES
References
Drugs.com. (2011). Weight Loss Medications. Retrieved from:
http://www.drugs.com/condition/weight-loss.html
Fast-weight-loss-tips.com. (2009). Articles in the Diet Pills Category. Retrieved from:
http://www.fast-weight-loss-tips.com/category/diet-pills/
Gudakunst, S.( n.d.). Shocking Proof: Here’s the Real Reason You’re Fat. Retrieved from:
http://topsecretfatlosssecret.com/?hop=zakura
Health on the Net Foundation. (2011). Certificate of Compliance with the Code of Conduct
HONcode. Retrieved from:
http://www.hon.ch/HONcode/Conduct.html?HONConduct756274
Health on the Net Foundation. (2011). What is It? The Commitment to Reliable Health and
Medical Information on the Internet. Retrieved from:
http://www.hon.ch/HONcode/Patients/Visitor/visitor.html
Medical Library Association (MLA). (2011). A User's Guide to Finding and Evaluating Health
Information on the Web. Retrieved from:
http://www.mlanet.org/resources/userguide.html
National Library of Medicine. (2011). Evaluating Internet Health Information. [Adobe Flash
Tutorial]. Retrieved from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/webeval/webeval.html
3
19
Sample: Annotated Bibliography
This sample was prepared for Drexel INFO 648. Course description
and goals are here.
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY: SURVEILLANCE
1
Annotated Bibliography for Public Health Surveillance
Andresen, E. M., Diehr, P. H., & Luke, D. A. (2004). Public Health Surveillance of LowFrequency Populations. Annual Review of Public Health, 25(1), 25-52.
Problems and approaches for situations with insufficient surveillance data using examples of race
and ethnic minority groups are presented. The need for this work is established from the authors’
experience of achieving confidence in data, which is difficult to attain because small ethnic
group numbers can cause margins of error. The intended audience includes those involved in
health surveillance activities. Advantages and disadvantages of using traditional data sources and
surveillance methods are discussed. Data collection improvements are recommended for
sampling strategies, field methods, and survey logistics. Also included are data analysis
recommendations: spatial smoothing with Geographic Information Systems (GIS), small area
estimation, exact statistical methods, and/or provider profiling methods.
This article is valuable because it’s comprehensive and provides insight into the advantages and
disadvantage of surveillance strategies. It’s a great go-to article for help on determining how to
enhance existing surveillance methods and how to make the most of existing data sets. A specific
set of steps for definitive corrective action is not included, but the authors say this is not the
intended purpose. The article is meant to encourage steps for revising existing methods or
incorporating new strategies to better results.
Lazarus, R., Yih, K., & Platt, R. (2006, September 19). Distributed Data Processing for Public
Health Surveillance. Biomed Central Public Health, 25(1), 235-246.
Advantages and disadvantages of using a distributed processing model for routine, automated
syndromic surveillance are presented. In the authors’ system, which supports the National
Bioterrorism Syndromic Surveillance Demonstration Program (NDP), data processing is
distributed to data collection sites rather than being performed at one central location, allowing
personal health information (PHI) to be pre-processed remotely under the security and control of
the data provider. The intended audience of this article includes those who need information on
how to develop syndromic surveillance systems, regardless of worldwide location.
This article is valuable because it demonstrates a feasible system in which PHI is protected
concurrently with on-going syndromic surveillance activities. While this is the second
publication on this specific topic, the authors feel strongly that their system is a valuable
alternative surveillance system option that warrants more in-depth explanation and debate. The
article is straightforward and honest in terms of presenting the system’s advantages and
disadvantages. It presents a good case study of a system that addresses PHI privacy concerns and
should be one of several consulted on the topic of syndromic surveillance.
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY: SURVEILLANCE
McNabb, S. J. N. (2010). Comprehensive Effective and Efficient Global Public Health
Surveillance. Biomed Central Public Health, 10(Supplement 1), 3-7.
A global forum used to develop an interoperable, global public health grid that can provide
information when and where it’s needed is proposed. The intended audience is anyone doing
work on or in support of global public health surveillance. The author cites three global
movements that can set in motion joint, global surveillance efforts, including the adoption of
revised International Health Regulations (IHR) by all World Health Organization (WHO)
Member States, advances in health informatics and information technology, and consensus
between global security and public health groups that it is mutually beneficial to achieve public
health surveillance. Interdependent prerequisites are needed for development to occur: demand
and mutual interest; respect for human rights and data ownership; a shared vision; regional,
national, and global perspectives; standard operating procedures and lines of authority;
assessment of existing workflow; training and transparency; and funding.
This article is a great starting point for discussions on global public health surveillance. It is
valuable because it specifically lists challenges and requirements necessary for making progress
in this area. This article should be one of several articles consulted on the subject of global public
health surveillance.
Nordin, J. D., Kasimow, S., Levitt, M. J., & Goodman, M. J. (2008, May). Bioterrorism
Surveillance and Privacy: Intersection of HIPPA, the Common Rule, and Public Health
Law. American Journal of Public Health, 98(5), 802-807.
In response to a lack of privacy safeguards, this article proposes three health surveillance ethical
review processes that can be implemented independently or combined prior to surveillance being
carried out, including a systems solution involving data agreements, a structural solution such as
a public health information privacy board, and/or expansion of an institutional review board. The
authors contend that such review is necessary to prevent accidental or intentional data releases
and misunderstandings or misinterpretations associated with privacy and public health laws. The
intended audience is health policymakers, legislative authorities, and those interested in learning
about health privacy issues.
This article is an editorial piece. It does a good job of explaining in layman’s terms the three
main privacy laws: the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act, the Common Rule
and protection of human study participants, and public health law. However, the specific idea
proposed is confusing and not intuitively obvious until the last paragraph. Even then, readers
2
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY: SURVEILLANCE
may be left wondering if they’ve understood the article correctly. This article should be one of
several reviewed on the subject of health surveillance and policy.
Wartenberg, D. Thompson, W. D., Fitzgerald, E. F., Gross, H. J., Condon, S. K., Kim, N., Goun,
B. D., Opiekun, R. E., & the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey
(UMDNJ) Collaborative Project Working Group on Northeast United States (U.S.)
Ambient Air Quality and Adverse Birth Outcomes Surveillance. (2008, November).
Developing Integrated Multistate Environmental Public Health Surveillance. Journal of
Public Health Management Practice, 14(6), 552-561.
Preliminary steps are summarized for the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey
(UMDNJ) Collaborative Project on Northeast U.S. Ambient Air Quality and Adverse Birth
Outcomes, conducted under the Centers for Disease Control’s (CDC) Environmental Public
Health Tracking (EPHT) Program. The intended audience for this article is any local, national, or
international agency working on public health issues and/or surveillance. Study participants and
methodology are presented, along with the study’s goals: to demonstrate states’ abilities to
identify a common environmental health issue, establish and share consistent data, and
collaboratively analyze data to develop observations and conclusions of local and regional
significance for intervention. Administrative and scientific issues likely to arise in a nationwide
assessment are identified and discussed in order to demonstrate feasibility.
The value of this article is in the presentation of a multi-state, collaborative study framework as
compared to an individual-scale surveillance study. A multi-state framework can be difficult to
establish because of the need for consensus, confidence that data will remain private, and data
analysis protocol development that is mutually acceptable to all parties. There are no weaknesses
in this article other than the proposed use of computer model-generated air quality data. The
limitations of using this data are clearly acknowledged by the authors, so one can presume that
study results will be interpreted appropriately. This is one of several articles that should be
consulted on the subject of multi-state collaborative frameworks for public health surveillance.
3
23
Sample: Relational Database System Design
Logical Design and Implementation
This sample was prepared for Drexel INFO 605,
Introduction to Database Management. Details for this
course are as follows:
Description
INFO 605 emphasizes the basic concepts and methods employed in the theory and
practice of modern database systems. We will focus on database design, data
manipulation, and data integrity maintenance. Topics include database design
techniques using the entity-relationship approach, techniques of translating entityrelationship diagrams into relational schema, integrity constraints, relational
algebra, commercial query languages and normalization techniques..
Course Objectives
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
Explain the fundamental concepts associated with database management
systems
Analyze data management problems (e.g., assess the information needs of a
business)
Design databases that address those problems using industry-standard
methodologies
Implement those designs using popular commercial-grade database software
packages
Develop applications that interact with databases using SQL
Search in a bioinformatics database
Critically discuss current research literature in healthcare informatics
Database Design for Meals on Wheels
Jinyan Chen
Kurt Esposito
Tracy Lamb
Lisa Romanoski
Drexel University
Author Note
This paper has been prepared in accordance with the
requirements of INFO 605, Course Project Milestone 2.
Certification
I certify that:
пѓј This paper/project/exam is entirely my own work.
пѓј I have not quoted the words of any other person from a printed source or a website without
indicating what has been quoted and providing an appropriate citation.
пѓј I have not submitted this paper/project to satisfy the requirements of any other course.
Signatures:
Jinyan Chen
Kurt Esposito
Tracy Lamb
Lisa Romanoski
Date: March 23, 2012.
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
Table of Contents
Project Description.......................................................................................................................... 1
Chestnut Hill Meals on Wheels ................................................................................................ 1
Current Operations .................................................................................................................... 2
Data Management Problem....................................................................................................... 3
Opportunities............................................................................................................................. 4
Requirements Specification ............................................................................................................ 5
Information That Needs to Be Captured ................................................................................... 5
Associated Business Rules ........................................................................................................ 6
Conceptual Design .......................................................................................................................... 8
EER Diagram ............................................................................................................................ 8
Relational Schema .......................................................................................................................... 9
Database Implementation.............................................................................................................. 11
Data Queries.................................................................................................................................. 13
Data Manipulation ........................................................................................................................ 15
INSERT examples .................................................................................................................. 15
UPDATE examples ................................................................................................................. 16
DELETE examples ................................................................................................................. 18
Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 19
References ..................................................................................................................................... 21
i
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
List of Figures
Figure 1. CHMOW delivery area (www.mapquest.com). .............................................................. 1
Figure 2. CHMOW’s labels in MS Word. ..................................................................................... 3
Figure 3. Extended Entity Relationship Diagram (EERD) for the CHMOW database. ................ 8
Figure 4. CHMOW Relational Schema ....................................................................................... 10
List of Appendices
Appendix A: Kitchen Spreadsheet ............................................................................................... 22
Appendix B: Driver Packet .......................................................................................................... 25
ii
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
1
Project Description
The steps following conceptual database design are logical design and implementation
(Whitten and Bentley, 2005, p. 202). These steps were carried out using a requirements analysis
and conceptual design for the Meals on Wheels Chestnut Hill, Pennsylvania, chapter (CHMOW).
This paper is part two of a two-part project report and includes the following:
п‚·
Requirements specification
п‚·
Conceptual design
п‚·
Relational schema
п‚·
Database implementation
п‚·
Example data queries
п‚·
Example data manipulation tasks
We conclude with a summation of our project and discuss how it can facilitate data
management at CHMOW.
Chestnut Hill Meals on Wheels
As we mentioned in project report
one, Chestnut Hill Meals on Wheels
(CHMOW) is a community-based, nonprofit organization providing fresh,
nutritious meals to physically and/or
mentally incapacitated seniors aged 60
years or older via volunteer-based delivery
Figure 3. CHMOW delivery area (www.mapquest.com).
to the Chestnut Hill, Erdenheim, Mt. Airy, Flourtown, Oreland, and Wyndmoor communities
north of Philadelphia, PA, as shown in Figure 1 (CHMOW, 2012). Up to two meals a day at a
cost of $7 a day or $35 a week may be delivered on a schedule that has any combination of days
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
during the entire week (CHMOW, 2012). With the exception of its executive and administrative
staff, CHMOW relies on volunteers to assist in one of five areas: meal packing, meal delivery,
congregate center assistance, special events, and fund raising (CHMOW, 2012).
Current Operations
As mentioned previously, CHMOW is comprised of executive and administrative staff
and volunteers. All CHMOW operations requiring a computer are carried out using Microsoft
(MS) Office software on Apple computers. No databases are used. Typical, daily CHMOW
operations are as follows:
1. In preparation for the next day’s meals, the executive director opens an Excel spreadsheet to
the “Route Totals” sheet. Column A lists all clients, organized by route. Subsequent columns
indicate food and dietary preferences, including but not limited to portion size, bread choice
(wheat, white, etc.), and vegetarian or meat options. For each client, subsequent cell values
are “toggled” on or off: “0” indicates no value and “1” indicates a chosen preference. For
example, if a client will not receive a meal the next day, “client” is changed to “0.” Cell
values are either “0” or “1,” but there are circumstances that warrant a larger number entry.
For example, a client may request one sandwich but two low-fat milks daily. The entry under
“milk” would read “2.”
2. After updating the columns, the executive director navigates to and prints the “Kitchen List”
sheet which calls total values from the “Route Totals” sheet. Changes are saved if they are
permanent changes. For example, a client’s dietary needs may change such that pork is no
longer acceptable in a dinner entrГ©e but beef and chicken are. Changes are not saved if the
desired action is temporary. For example, a client will be out of town and miss a daily
delivery but will still require annual meal delivery.
2
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
3. Next, meal labels are printed for the kitchen staff
using MS Word, as shown in Figure 2. Of a twopage document, page 1 labels are attached to cold
meals (lunch sack) and page 2 labels are attached
to hot meal (aluminum trays with lids). The labels
and the spreadsheet’s kitchen totals output are then Figure 4. CHMOW’s labels in MS Word.
provided to staff.
4. A separate Excel spreadsheet is used each day to track client billing. Clients’ entries are
updated as needed and then information is extracted with which to make invoices. Invoices
are generated using MS Office software and then mailed once a month to clients. Fees paid,
unpaid, and other miscellaneous notes are kept on file in the same spreadsheet.
5. The next morning, the kitchen staff assembles lunch sacks and hot trays, attaching the correct
labels to each, and place the meals into two coolers per client route for one of six routes.
Coolers and route-specific information packets are stacked outside for pick up. The packet
contains a route’s client list, including addresses and special instructions, and driving
directions for house-to-house navigation.
6. Lastly, the drivers arrive, pick up meals, and make deliveries. Following deliveries, coolers
and informational packets are returned to CHMOW headquarters (see Appendices A and B
for kitchen and driver packet examples).
Data Management Problem
The problem with CHMOW’s data management practices is that the organization is
limited to using a combination of MS Office products that do not interact with one another,
resulting in operational inefficiency and increased likelihood for errors. For example, if a client
3
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
requests a temporary meal delivery cessation, the labels for the next day must be manipulated in
Word based on information in one master Excel spreadsheet. In addition, invoice practices are
time consuming, requiring staff to open the master Excel spreadsheet and cut and paste
information into a separate Word document for invoicing. Another Word document is then used
to print labels for envelopes. In summary, CHMOW’s administrative tasks tend to be disjointed
from all the opening and closing of separate documents and can be susceptible to errors due to
slow update times depending on user operations. Opportunities for improvement are discussed in
the next section.
Opportunities
Opportunities for improving CHMOW’s business needs include creating one central
database with which to link and regularly update multiple functional areas, including but not
limited to kitchen preparation, delivery label-making, production of daily delivery information,
invoicing, and donor activities. Database representations of CHMOW’s activities can be
conceptualized as miniworlds. For CHMOW, there are two miniworlds:
1. Correct execution of daily operations based on current information, and
2. On-going community outreach efforts as related to fund-raising and volunteer drives.
Although the miniworlds have different data and business processes, they are related by
the people involved in the processes. The database design will focus on daily operations only.
Future database expansion for community outreach operations and invoicing will be considered
in the design process but not incorporated in the first database iteration.
4
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
5
Requirements Specification
Information That Needs to Be Captured
Having determined the need for a database, data that needs to be captured about
CHMOW’s operations includes information about staff, volunteers, and donor, as summarized in
Table 1. Our project is limited in scope to creating a database that can produce reports daily for
the kitchen and drivers. Financial reporting and invoicing are not included in our project scope.
Table 1. CHMOW Database Needs
Category
Data Needed
Staff
Taxpayer identification
First, last name
Address
Phone
Email
Volunteers
Driver’s license
First, last name
Address
Phone
Email
Completed application
Signed release form
Insurance card copy
Orientation program completion status
Training status
Availability
Primary driving schedule (with map)
Alternate driving schedule (with map)
Miscellaneous notes (other)
Clients
First, last name
Billing address
Delivery address
Primary phone
Alternative phone
Emergency contact number
Email
Meal preferences
Delivery schedule (any combination of days)
Route
Invoice preparation status
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
6
Category
Data Needed
Invoice delivery status
Invoice payment status
Miscellaneous notes (other)
Donors
Taxpayer identification
First, last name
Address
Phone
Email
Donation amount
Donation date (month/day/year)
Thank you note composition status
Thank you note delivery status
Documents
Daily kitchen report
Address label template
Thank you note template
Associated Business Rules
In addition to identifying informational needs for the database, business rules need to be
incorporated as well. Business rules are constraints in that they dictate and/or limit database
activities and functions. Table 2 lists CHMOW’s business rules.
Table 2. CHMOW’s Business Rules
Business Rules
Meals are delivered Monday through Friday and holidays.
Each client and volunteer is entered into the database once.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
(1)
g)
h)
i)
Meal preferences:
Meal type: regular or double
Soup: yes or no
Salad: yes or no
Bread: yes or no
Bread preference: white, whole wheat, or rye
Sandwich: yes or no
Preference: white, whole wheat, or rye
Fruit cup: yes or no
Fresh fruit: yes or no
Dessert: yes or no
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
j)
(1)
k)
(1)
Business Rules
Milk: yes or no
Preference: Lactaid, low fat, skim, whole
Juice: yes or not
Preference: apple, cranberry, or orange
Client dietary restrictions are variable and include:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)
l)
m)
n)
o)
p)
q)
ADA (indicates diabetic)
Bananas (indicates client needs banana for potassium)
No Beef
No Cilantro
No Chicken Legs
Vegetarian
No corn, beans, seeds or nuts
No fish
No fried foods
No leafy foods
No meat loaf
No mushrooms
No pasta
No pork
No shrimp
No tomato sauce
Soft foods and chopped
a)
b)
c)
d)
Routes:
Have a number that is variable
Have names
Are created and removed as the number of clients changes
May have zero or more clients
a)
b)
c)
d)
Drivers may or may not have scheduling preferences, which include:
Day of week
Frequency (weekly, monthly, etc.)
Availability (for example, June, July and Aug only)
Ability to be on-call to drive as needed
When scheduling drivers, each route can have one or two drivers on any given day.
7
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
8
Conceptual Design
EER Diagram
Following identification of business needs and constraints, an EER diagram of CHMOW’s
database was completed and is shown below. Included in the EER diagram are primary and
foreign keys, relationship cardinality, and participation numbers.
Person
Assumptions:
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
Only active clients receive meals
Only 1 meal is delivered to a client on any given day
A single driver will only drive 1 route on any one day.
All meals, regardless of preferences and restrictions, are
charged a single fee for each meal. (Currently, $7.00)
There are several more categories of Volunteers; they are not
shown here as it is outside the scope of this project.
Billing and invoicing are not included, as that is handled by a
separate accounting software package.
personID {PK}
name
fname
lname
title
address
street1
street2
city
state
zip
primaryPhone
alternatePhone
email
notes
Donation
Gives4
1..1
donationID {PK}
donationDate
donationAmount
thankyouSent
1..*
{Optional, And}
Client
MealComponent
1..*
mcID {PK}
mcDescription
sortOrder
Prefe
rs 0..*
ClientMeal
personID {PPK}
mcID {PPK}
quantity
0..*
H
DietaryRestriction
as
0..*
0..*
ClientRestriction
Figure
personID {PPK}
includes some drID {PPK}
changes from
the first EERD that was presented
part one of this two-part project
report:
personID {PK}
active
completedApp
signedRelease
orientationStatus
trainingStatus
preferredDays
mon
tues
wed
thurs
fri
availability
startDate
endDate
1..1
Assigned To
drID {PK}
drDescription
sortOrder
Volunteer
personID {PK}
active
dateAdded
schedule
mon
tues
wed
thurs
fri
emergencyContact
fname
lname
phoneNbr
billingAddress
street1
street2
city
state
zip
0..1
1..1
Route
1..1
Delivers
1..2
routeNum {PK}
/nbrOfClients
direction
MealDelivery
date {PPK}
driverID {PPK}
clientID {PPK}
routeNum
Figure 5. Extended Entity Relationship Diagram (EERD) for the CHMOW database.
Driver
3
personID {PK}
onCall
driversLicense
insurance
backgroundCheck
notes
in
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
п‚·
Staff, Donor, and Donation entities were removed because the scope effort was re-focused to
address only clients and volunteers who are drivers.
п‚·
Meal Delivery is included as a new entity to replace the previous Meal entity: it allows for
tracking of meals and delivery dates by client.
п‚·
Preference and Dietary Restriction entities were removed to accommodate Meal Component
with Client Meal preference and Dietary Restriction linked to a Client Restriction. This
allows for making both meal preferences and dietary restrictions attribute values. The roles of
the Meal Component and Dietary Restrictions entities become that of a lookup entity in
which the identifying attribute appears as a field within the parent entity (Microsoft, 2012).
Lookup entities are helpful when there is really only one attribute of interest for people
creating reports or obtaining information (Microsoft, 2012). Since lookup entities can only
have one attribute specified as an Identifying Attribute property (Microsoft, 2012), the
identifying attributes are mcID (meal component identification) and drID (dietary restriction
ID).
Relational Schema
The next step in the logical design process involved translating the EERD into a
relational schema, as shown in Figure 4. Primary keys and foreign keys are listed to the right of
the figure.
9
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
10
MealDelivery
date (PPK)
Person (personID, fname, lname, title, street1, street2, city, state,
zip, primaryPhone, alternatePhone, email, notes)
driverID (PPK)
clientID (PPK)
routeNum
Person
title
lname
fname
personID(PK)
alternatePhone
primaryPhone
zip
state
city
street
street1
Donation
email
notes
Client (personID, active, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday,
Thursday, Friday, emergencyFName, emergencyLName,
emergencyPhone, billingStreet1, billingStreet2, billingCity,
billingState, zip, routeNum)
Foreign key personID references Person(personID)
Route
donationDate
personID
donationID (PK)
routeNum (PK)
thankyouSent
donationAmount
direction
Volunteer(personID, active, completedApp, signedRelease,
orientationStatus, mon, tues, wed, thurs, fri, startDate, endDate)
Foreign key personID references Person(personID)
Client
personID (PK) active monday tuesday wednesday thursday friday
emergency emergency
billingStreet1 billingStreet2
Phone
LName
billingCity
billingState
zip
routeNum
drID (PPK)
drID (PK)
drDescription
Donation (donationID, personID donationDate, donationAmount,
thankyouSent)
Foreign key personID references Person(personID)
sortOrder
MealComponent
mcID (PK)
mcDescription
Driver (personID, onCall, driverLicense, insurance,
backgroundcheck, notes)
Foreign key personID references Person(personID)
DietaryRestriction
ClientRestriction
personID (PPK)
emgergency
FName
Route (routeNum, description)
sortOrder
MealComponent (mcID, mcDescription, sortOrder)
DietaryRestriction (drID, drDescription, sortOrder)
ClientMeal
personID (PPK) mcID (PPK)
ClientMeal (personID, mcID, quantity)
Foreign key personID references Person(personID)
Foreign key mcID references MealComponent(mcID)
quantity
Volunteer
personID (PK)
active
completedApp signedRelease
orientationStatus
trainingStatus
Driver
personID (PK)
onCall
driversLicense
Figure 6. CHMOW Relational Schema
insurance
backgroundCheck
notes
mon
tues
wed
thurs
fri
startDate
endDate
ClientRestriction (personID, drID)
Foreign key personID references Person(personID)
Foreign key drID references DietaryRestriction( drID)
MealDelivery (date, driverID, clientID, routeNum)
Foreign key driverID references Person(personID)
Foreign key clientID references Person(personID)
Foreign key routeNum references Route(routeNum)
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
Database Implementation
Following the creation of the relational schema, DDL statements were composed as
follows for each table:
CREATE TABLE Person
(personID NUMBER(5) NOT NULL,
taxpayerID NUMBER(9) UNIQUE,
fname VARCHAR2(20),
lname VARCHAR2(20),
title VARCHAR2(30),
street1 VARCHAR2(30),
street2 VARCHAR2(30),
city VARCHAR2(30)
state NUMBER(2),
zip VARCHAR2(9),
primaryPhone NUMBER(10),
alternatePhone NUMBER(10),
email VARCHAR2(50),
notes LONG,
CONSTRAINT PersonID_PK PRIMARY KEY (personID));
CREATE TABLE Donation
(personID NUMBER(5) NOT NULL,
donationID NUMBER(9) NOT NULL,
donationDate DATE,
donationAmount NUMBER(6,2),
thankyouSent DATE,
CONSTRAINT DonationID_PK PRIMARY KEY (donationID)
CONSTRAINT Donation_FK FOREIGN KEY (personID) REFERENCES Person(personID)
ON DELETE CASCADE;
CREATE TABLE Volunteer
(personID NUMBER(5) NOT NULL,
active CHAR(1)
completedApp DATE NOT NULL,
signedRelease DATE NOT NULL,
orientationStatus DATE NOT NULL,
trainingStatus DATE NOT NULL,
mon CHAR(1),
tues CHAR(1),
wed CHAR(1),
thurs CHAR(1),
fri CHAR(1),
startDate DATE,
11
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
endDate DATE,
CONSTRAINT Volunteer_PK PRIMARY KEY(personID),
CONSTRAINT Volunteer_FK FOREIGN KEY (personID) REFERENCES Person(personID)
ON DELETE SET NULL) ON DELETE CASCADE;
CREATE TABLE Driver
(personID NUMBER(5) NOT NULL,
onCall CHAR(1),
driversLicense VARCHAR2(10),
insurance VARCHAR2(20),
insuranceNo VARCHAR2(16),
backgroundCheck DATE,
notes LONG,
CONSTRAINT Driver_PK PRIMARY KEY(personID) ,
CONSTRAINT Driver_FK FOREIGN KEY (personID) REFERENCES Person(personID)
ON DELETE SET NULL) ON DELETE CASCADE;
CREATE TABLE Client
(personID NUMBER(5) NOT NULL,
active CHAR(1),
dateADDED DATE,
mon CHAR(1),
tues CHAR(1),
wed CHAR(1),
thurs CHAR(1),
fri CHAR(1),
emergencyfname VARCHAR2(20),
emergencylname VARCHAR2(20),
emergencyPhone NUMBER(10),
billingStreet1 VARCHAR2(30),
billingStreet2 VARCHAR2(30),
billingCity VARCHAR2(30)
billingState CHAR(2),
zip VARCHAR2(9),
routeNUM VARCHAR2(10),
CONSTRAINT Client_PK PRIMARY KEY(personID),
CONSTRAINT Client_FK FOREIGN KEY (personID) REFERENCES Person(personID)
ON DELETE SET NULL) ON DELETE CASCADE;
CREATE TABLE Route
(routeNum NUMBER(4) NOT NULL,
direction LONG,
CONSTRAINT routeNum_PK PRIMARY KEY (routeNum));
CREATE TABLE MealDelivery
(date DATE NOT NULL,
12
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
driverID NUMBER(5) NOT NULL,
clientID NUMBER(5) NOT NULL,
routeNum NUMBER(4),
CONSTRAINT date_PK1 PRIMARY KEY(date),
CONSTRAINT driverID_PK2 PRIMARY KEY(driverID),
CONSTRATIN clientID_PK3 PRIMARY KEY(clientID),
CONSTRAINT MealDelivery_FK1 FOREIGN KEY (driverID) REFERENCES
Person(personID) ON DELETE CASCADE,
CONSTRAINT MealDelivery_FK2 FOREIGN KEY (clientID) REFERENCES
Person(personID) ON DELETE CASCADE),
CONSTRAINT routeNUM_FK3 FOREIGN KEY (routeNum) REFERENCES
Route(routeNum));
CREATE TABLE MealComponent
(mcID NUMBER(4) NOT NULL,
mcDescription VARCHAR2(50),
sortOrder NUMBER(4),
CONSTRAINT MealComponent_PK PRIMARY KEY(mcID));
CREATE TABLE ClientMeal
(personID NUMBER(5) NOT NULL,
mcID NUMBER(4) NOT NULL,
quantity NUMBER(2),
CONSTRAINT ClientMeal_PK PRIMARY KEY (personID, mcID)
CONSTRAINT personID_FK1 FOREIGN KEY references Person(personID) ON DELETE
CASCADE,
CONSTRAINT mcID_FK1 FOREIGN KEY references MealComponent(mcID) ON DELETE
CASCADE);
CREATE TABLE DietaryRestriction
(drID NUMBER(4) NOT NULL,
drDescription VARCHAR2(50),
sortOrder NUMBER(4),
CONSTRAINT DietaryRestriction_PK PRIMARY KEY (drID));
CREATE TABLE ClientRestriction
(personID NUMBER(5) NOT NULL,
drID NUMBER(4) NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT ClientRestriction_PK PRIMARY KEY (personID, drID)
CONSTRAINT personID_FK1 FOREIGN KEY references Person(personID),
CONSTRAINT drID_FK2 FOREIGN KEY references DietaryRestriction( drID));
Data Queries
The following statements are examples of data queries for the new database:
13
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
п‚·
Find the number of clients who deliveries on Mondays, Wednesday, and Fridays. Include
personID and list by routeNum in ascending order.
SELECT personID
FROM Client c, MealDelivery md
WHERE c.personID = md.clientID AND c.mon = �Y’ AND c.wed = �Y’ AND c.fri = �Y’
ORDERBY routeNum;
п‚·
Determine which clients received meals on Thursday, February 16.
SELECT clientID
FROM MealDelivery
WHERE date = ’16-Feb-12’;
Or
SELECT fname, lname
FROM Person
WHERE personID IN
(SELECT personID
FROM MealDelivery
WHERE date= ’16-Feb-12’);
п‚·
Find the donors who donated more than $5,000 to CHMOW in each donation.
SELECT *
FROM Person
WHERE personID IN
(SELECT DISTINCT personID
FROM Donation
WHERE donationAmount=5000);
п‚·
Determine which clients have no-dairy dietary restrictions.
SELECT personID
FROM ClientRestriction
WHERE drID = 1100;
п‚·
Which drivers delivered food for which clients on March 12, 2012?
SELECT driverID, clientID
FROM MealDelivery
WHERE date = ’12-Mar-12’
GROUPBY routeNum;
п‚·
Print phone number, emergency contact phone number and address of a client whose ID is
12345.
14
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
SELECT p.phoneNum, c.phoneNbr, p.street1, p.street2, p.city, p.state
FROM Person p, Client c
WHERE p.personID =c.personID
AND p.personID=12345;
Data Manipulation
The following statements are examples using the Insert, Update, and Delete commands:
INSERT examples
INSERT INTO Person
VALUES (12345, �Eric’, �Blair’, �Mr.’ �1984 Oceania Dr.’, NULL, �Chestnuthill’, �PA’,
вЂ�02556’, вЂ�6105551701’, вЂ�6105551948’, вЂ�[email protected]’, NULL);
INSERT INTO Person
VALUES (12346, �Peter’, �Lake’, �Mr.’, �345 Winter Rd.’ �Apt.3D’, �Chestnuthill’, �PA’,
вЂ�02556’, вЂ�6105554830’, NULL, вЂ�[email protected]’, NULL);
INSERT INTO Person
VALUES (12347, �Beverly’, �Penn’, �Miss’, �200 Coheeries Ln.’, NULL, �Chestnuthill’, �PA’,
вЂ�02556’, вЂ�610555007’, вЂ�6105551901’, вЂ�[email protected]’, NULL);
INSERT INTO Volunteer
VALUES (12346, �Y’, ’06-Jun-11’, ’13-Jun-11’, ’13-Jun-11’, ’13-Jun-11’, �Y’, �N’, �Y’, �N’,
�Y’, ’22-Jun-11’, NULL)
INSERT INTO Driver
(12346, �N’, �E140258834’, �Geico’, �104484848337’, ’18-Jun-11’, NULL)
INSERT INTO Client
VALUES (12347, �Y’, ’10-OCT-08’, �Y’, �Y’, �Y’, �Y’, �Y’, �Isaac’, �Penn’, �6105556767’,
�200 Coheeries Ln.’, NULL, �Chestnuthill’, �PA’, �02556’)
INSERT INTO Donation
VALUES (12345, 122533432, ’22-Ded-11’, 5000.00, NULL);
INSERT INTO Donation
VALUES (12345, 122533671, ’18-Mar-12’, 150.00, NULL);
INSERT INTO Donation
VALUES (12346, 122533419, ’19-Dec-11’, 100.00, NULL);
INSERT INTO Route
VALUES (8812, 5, �SW along Harrison until Vine’);
INSERT INTO Route
VALUES (8814, 7, �NW Mitchell through Evergreen’);
INSERT INTO Route
VALUES (8816, 3, �N White Horse through Blue Ridge Apartments’);
15
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
INSERT INTO MealDelivery
VALUES (’19-Mar-12’, 12346, 12347, 8812);
INSERT INTO MealDelivery
VALUES (’21-Mar-12’, 12346, 12347, 8812);
INSERT INTO MealDelivery
VALUES (’23-Mar-12’, 12346, 12347, 8812);
INSERT INTO MealComponent
VALUES (3155, �sandwich, NULL);
INSERT INTO MealComponent
VALUES (3167, �fruitcup, NULL);
INSERT INTO MealComponent
VALUES (3124, �milk’, NULL);
INSERT INTO ClientMeal
VALUES (12347, 3155, 1);
INSERT INTO ClientMeal
VALUES (12347, 3167, 1);
INSERT INTO ClientMeal
VALUES (12347, 3124, 1);
INSERT INTO DietaryRestriction
VALUES (1122, �no cilantro’, NULL);
INSERT INTO DietaryRestriction
VALUES (1339, �soft foods’, NULL);
INSERT INTO DietaryRestriction
VALUES (1123, �vegetarian’, NULL);
INSERT INTO DietaryRestriction
VALUES (1100, �no dairy’, NULL);
INSERT INTO ClientRestriction
VALUES (12347, 1122);
INSERT INTO ClientRestriction
VALUES (12347, 1339);
INSERT INTO ClientRestriction
VALUES (12347, 1123);
UPDATE examples
Person
UPDATE Volunteer
SET wed = �N’
WHERE personID = 12346;
UPDATE Person
16
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
SET primaryPhone = 6105551111
WHERE personID = 12346;
Update Client
Set fri = �N’
WHERE personID = 12347;
Donation
UPDATE Donation
SET thankyouSent = �22-Mar-12’
WHERE personID = 12345 AND donationID = 122533671;
UPDATE Donation
SET thankyouSent = �2-Feb-12
WHERE personID = 12345 AND donationID = 122533432;
UPDATE Donation
SET thankyouSent = �2-Feb-12’
WHERE personID = 12346 and donationID = 122533419;
Route
UPDATE Route
SET numberofClients = 4
WHERE routeNum = 8812;
UPDATE Route
SET direction = �NW Mitchell through Evergreen including Hempstead’
WHERE routeNum = 8814;
UPDATE Route
SET direction =’SW along Harrison until Vine including Lake and Valley’
WHERE routeNum = 8812;
ClientMeal
UPDATE ClientMeal
SET quantity = 2
WHERE personID = 12347 AND mcID = 3155;
UPDATE ClientMeal
SET quantity = 2
WHERE personID = 12347 AND mcID = 3167;
UPDATE ClientMeal
SET quantity = 2
WHERE personID = 12346 AND mcID = 3124;
17
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
DELETE examples
Person
DELETE FROM Person
WHERE personID = 12347;
DELETE FROM Driver
WHERE personID = 12346;
DELETE FROM Person
WHERE person ID = 12345;
Donation
DELETE FROM Donation
WHERE personID = 12345 AND donationID = 122533432;
DELETE FROM Donation
WHERE personID = 12345 AND donationID = 122533671;
DELETE FROM Donation
WHERE personID = 12346 AND donationID = 122533419;
Route
DELETE FROM Route
WHERE routeNum = 8812;
DELETE FROM Route
WHERE routeNum = 8814;
DELETE FROM Route
WHERE routeNum = 8816;
MealDelivery
DELETE FROM MealDelivery
WHERE date = ’19-Mar-12’ AND driverID = 12346 AND clientID = 12347;
DELETE FROM MealDelivery
WHERE date = ’21-Mar-12’ AND driverID = 12346 AND clientID = 12347;
DELETE FROM MealDelivery
WHERE date = ’23-Mar-12’ AND driverID = 12346 AND clientID =12347;
MealComponent
DELETE FROM MealComponent
WHERE mcID = 3155;
18
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
DELETE FROM MealComponent
WHERE mcID = 3167;
DELETE FROM MealComponent
WHERE mcID = 3124;
ClientMeal
DELETE FROM ClientMeal
WHERE personID = 12347 AND mcID = 3155;
DELETE FROM ClientMeal
WHERE personID = 12347 AND mcID = 3167;
DELETE FROM ClientMeal
WHERE personID = 12347 AND mcID = 3124;
DietaryRestriction
DELETE FROM DietaryRestriction
WHERE drID = 1122;
DietaryRestriction
DELETE FROM DietaryRestriction
WHERE drID = 1339;
DietaryRestriction
DELETE FROM DietaryRestriction
WHERE drID = 1123;
ClientRestriction
DELETE FROM ClientRestriction
WHERE personID = 12347 AND drID = 1122;
DELETE FROM ClientRestriction
WHERE personID = 12347 AND drID = 1339;
DELETE FROM ClientRestriction
WHERE personID = 12347 AND drID = 1123;
Summary
In summary, CHMOW’s operational activities depend on data that is manipulated using
MS Office software. This method is inefficient in that various documents need to be manually
opened and updated in order to view, enter, delete, or copy and paste data into other documents
19
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
to successfully execute tasks. Due to the fact that the software programs can’t interact with each
other, the length of time to execute activities and the likelihood for errors can be substantial.
Developing a central database that automatically updates data used by several functions, such as
the kitchen preparation lists and daily delivery route information for drivers, would increase
efficiency and decrease likelihood for errors.
This paper, part two of a two-part project report, presents how to begin the process of
transforming CHMOW’s operational practices from one that relies on MS Office software to one
that relies on a database. We expect to see increased operational efficiency, sharing of data,
reduction in data redundancy, data consistency, program-data independence, and improved data
accessibility (Li, 2012).
20
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
References
Chestnut Hill Meals on Wheels. (2012). Chestnut Hill Meals on Wheels. Retrieved from:
http://www.chestnuthillmow.com/
Li, J. (2012). Introduction to Database Management [Powerpoint Slides]. Retrieved from:
http://drexel.blackboard.com/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab_id=_2_1&url=%2fwebapp
s%2fblackboard%2fexecute%2flauncher%3ftype%3dCourse%26id%3d_464820_1%26ur
l%3d
Microsoft. (2012). Lesson 9: Specifying a Lookup Entity. Retrieved from:
http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms345302.aspx
Whitten, J., & Bentley, L. (2005). System Analysis and Design Methods. New York, NY:
McGraw Hill.
21
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
Appendix A: Kitchen Spreadsheet
22
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
Figure A-1. Route Totals worksheet.
Figure A-2. Kitchen List worksheet.
This worksheet is provided daily to
kitchen staff.
23
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
Figure A-3. Invoicing Worksheet
24
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
Appendix B: Driver Packet
25
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
Figure B-2. An example of directions provided to volunteers.
26
DATABASE DESIGN: MEALS ON WHEELS
Figure B-1. An example of a daily delivery client list.
27
55
Sample: Personas
This sample was prepared for Drexel INFO 608, HumanComputer Interaction. Details for this course are as follows:
Description
This course focuses on the design and evaluation of human-computer interfaces
covering such topics as task analysis techniques for gathering design information,
iterative design through prototyping, and formative and summative usability testing;
theoretical foundations of HCI and cognitive modeling of user interactions; the
integration of HCI techniques into the software development life cycle and the use
of user constraints to generate new interaction designs.
Course Objectives
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
Describe the general areas of study within the field of human-computer
interaction
Describe the interaction between people, the work they do, the information
systems they use, and the environments in which they work
Apply a user-oriented approach to the design of interactive computer systems
Apply a user-oriented approach to the evaluation of interactive computer
systems
Persona: Sally
Sally is 35 years old, works full time, and is pursuing a master’s degree in
information sciences in order to advance her career. Her bachelor’s degree was
obtained at a four-year college with traditional, in-person class attendance.
Sally is proficient in using PCs and Macs, Microsoft Office software, workspecific software, and is eager to learn new things and develop new skills.
Although Sally accesses Blackboard while at work when she has a spare moment or is on a lunch
break, most of her Blackboard activity is conducted from home. At work, Sally uses a PC
running Windows XP. Internet access is provided via a LAN. At home, Sally has both a PC and
a Mac but prefers the Mac. For internet service, she subscribes to her local cable provider for
basic service that has a download speed of 1.5 Mbps. She has a wireless router and connects to
the internet using Google Chrome on both her PC and MAC. After experiencing connection
difficulties with Blackboard due to an incompatible internet browser running on her Mac, Sally
now accesses Blackboard with her PC.
She estimates that she logs on one to three times a day, six days a week. The length of time she
stays logged in depends on what she needs to log in for. Sometimes she downloads course
materials, closes Blackboard, and carries on with her activities outside of Blackboard. She
estimates that her lengthier Blackboard log-ins are associated with writing Discussion Board
posts, varying from 10 to 30 minutes.
Prior to enrolling in Drexel, Sally had never used Blackboard or any other e-learning medium.
Sally completed Drexel’s iSchool Blackboard orientation, which introduced her to Blackboard.
She found the orientation helpful but really needed to do an exploration of Blackboard on her
own to really gain a comfort level with the program and its capabilities.
Sally is now well into her second quarter at Drexel. The features she typically accesses during a
quarter include Discussion Board, Group Workspace, My Grades, Wiki, Blogs, course material
folders, and Digital Dropbox. She finds the features easy to use and has generally positive
experiences with Blackboard, but she experienced some difficulties with submitting assignments
through Digital Dropbox. Sally would like to see a more reliable Digital Dropbox and be able to
access her Drexel webmail from within Blackboard. She’d also find it helpful if Blackboard
could notify her when her professor has added content.
Sally occasionally uses other tools for working with teams instead of those provided within
Blackboard. She’s used Skype for collaboration and Dropbox for file sharing. Decisions to use
these tools are made based on either negative experiences with Blackboard features or the
personal request of other students working on her team. She also prefers to email her professor
using her personal email interface instead of the email access provided by Blackboard.
In summary, Sally considers herself to be fairly adept at navigating and using Blackboard after
her first quarter at Drexel. She appreciates having 24-7 access to technical support, which she
has used several times for Blackboard issues. All issues were successfully addressed.
Scenario: Bob
The following scenario describes how a student might access and use Blackboard for team
collaboration.
Bob has just been assigned a project and four teammates to work with for his
Drexel information technology class. Bob’s team needs to have a few meetings
to talk about their project approach, tasks, and schedule. Bob’s not sure how
this is going to work because he and his teammates are spread out across the
U.S. in different time zones. Bob’s also unsure of what form of communication
to use because he doesn’t have the means to host or participate in a video or
phone conference. While large corporations have these capabilities, Bob is a full time student
and doesn’t have a job with an employer that could provide such things. Bob figures that since
Drexel is allowing him to complete his entire study program through online learning, the
university must provide him and his teammates with some kind of free collaboration tool. Bob
turns on his computer and accesses the Drexel Blackboard to see what’s available. He navigates
to Communication, Group Pages, and his team’s group page. He clicks on Collaboration and sees
that there is a means by which to talk live online with his teammates. He experiments by
selecting “Collaboration Session” and sets up a dummy meeting to see how it works. He sets a
date and time two minutes from his Blackboard log in and selects “Chat” and “Submit.” He waits
two minutes and accesses his session to see what comes up on the screen. He types in some
dummy phrases and finds that if other users were logged into the session, they could also type in
words or questions. Bob decides this will be an effective means by which to communicate in real
time with his teammates. He exits Blackboard and opens his personal email account to send a
message to his teammates about what he’s found.
58
Sample: Heuristic Evaluation
This sample was prepared for Drexel INFO 608. Course description
and goals are here.
Heuristic Evaluation of the IPL
Lina Bertinelli
Tiffany Chow
Jackie Ortanez
Lisa Romanoski
Heather Sherman
Drexel University
Author Note
This paper has been prepared in accordance with the
requirements of INFO 608, Final Report.
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
I certify that:
пѓј This paper/project/exam is entirely my own work.
пѓј I have not quoted the words of any other person from a printed source or a website without
indicating what has been quoted and providing an appropriate citation.
пѓј I have not submitted this paper/project to satisfy the requirements of any other course.
Signatures:
Lina Bertinelli
Tiffany Chow
Jackie Ortanez
Lisa Romanoski
Heather Sherman
Date: March 18, 2012
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Table of Contents
Executive Summary ........................................................................................................................ 1
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 2
Digital libraries ............................................................................................................................... 2
The Internet Public Library............................................................................................................. 2
Human Computer Interaction ......................................................................................................... 3
Study Limitations ............................................................................................................................ 5
Summary and Prioritization of Test Results ................................................................................... 6
Recommendations for Design ....................................................................................................... 10
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 15
References ..................................................................................................................................... 17
List of Tables
Table 1. Prioritization of Test Results ........................................................................................... 7
List of Figures
Figure 1. Visibility and System Status ......................................................................................... 10
Figure 2. Match Between System and the Real World ................................................................ 11
Figure 3. Match Between System and the Real World, Example 2 ............................................. 11
Figure 4. User Control and Freedom. .......................................................................................... 12
Figure 5. Recognition Rather than Recall. ................................................................................... 13
Figure 6. Recognition Rather than Recall, Example 2................................................................. 13
Figure 7. Recovering from Errors ................................................................................................ 14
i
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
List of Appendices
Appendix A: Team Interview Instrument .................................................................................... 19
Appendix B: Individual Interview Notes ..................................................................................... 22
Appendix C: Personas and Scenarios .......................................................................................... 35
Appendix D: Heuristic Evaluations ............................................................................................. 46
ii
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Executive Summary
The result of the merger between the Internet Public Library (IPL) and the Librarian’s
Internet Index (LII), ipl2 is self-described as a “public service organization and learning/teaching
environment” (The ipl2 Consortium, n.d.a). The website hosts several collections of reliable
Internet resources and provides users with an online reference service run by volunteers and
graduate students. This report serves to introduce the findings of a usability evaluation of ipl2.
For this study, we interviewed four K-12 current or former educators and one K-12
student to represent ipl2’s intended audience. We gathered information through the interview to
create personas and scenarios based on our interviewees and conducted a heuristic evaluation
through the perspective of each user.
By examining our evaluations, we found three areas that were both cited frequently and rated
as a major or catastrophic problem:
•
Website features, especially search and navigation, did not correspond with user
expectations, based on their experience with other information websites.
•
Website features, especially search and navigation, were found to be inflexible or
inefficient.
•
Inadequate help features were provided, including a lack of a website tutorial or an
extensive help page.
In this report, we detail these problems and others further and provide recommendations
based on Jakob Nielsen’s principles for user interface design and Donald Norman’s
fundamentals for everyday design.
1
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Introduction
Heuristic evaluations were conducted using personas and scenarios of anticipated users
on the Internet Public Library 2 (ipl2) website to determine usability problems in March 2012.
The purpose was formative and summative in that it gave information related to the worth or
merit of what is being evaluated (Reeves et al, 2005, p. 14). Individuals from different states
such as California, Florida, New Jersey, and South Carolina were interviewed to develop the
personas and scenarios. This project was conducted by five graduate students in the iSchool at
Drexel, College of Information Science and Technology, for Info 608, Human-Computer
Interactions.
Digital libraries
Digital libraries first began to develop in the 1990s (Jeng, 2005, p. 47). In simple terms,
Jeng explains that digital libraries are collections of information on a digital format, are available
through networks (i.e. Internet), and at times may include service such as reference (p. 47). This
project focuses on the ipl2, a digital library mainly geared towards K-12 affiliates (i.e. teachers,
students, parents). Since digital libraries hold digital information, these affiliates may use it in
order to search for reliable and valid information.
The Internet Public Library
The creation of IPL began in January 1995 in a graduate seminar at the School of
Information and Library Studies at the University of Michigan 2012 (The ipl2 Consortium,
n.d.b). It officially opened on March 17, 1995. The course instructor of the seminar, Dr. Joe
Janes, wanted to create the IPL in order to allow individuals to ask questions related to libraries
and librarianship. A section for children called “KidSpace” was also created to allow younger
audiences to become familiar with the IPL. After 17 years, the IPL has been revamped several
2
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
times and new sections like “TeenSpace” were added. In April 2009, IPL merged with the
Librarian’s Internet Index (LII) (The ipl2 Consortium, n.d.b). Together, they created the ipl2
which allows individuals to find “Information You Can Trust.” Today, ipl2 allows patrons to
search for their own information or ask an ipl2 librarian for help. Response time from an ipl2
librarian typically takes less than three business days. The ipl2 states that their mission is to
provide “in-service learning and volunteer opportunities for library and information science
students and professionals, offers a collaborative research forum, and supports and enhances
library services” (The ipl2 Consortium, n.d.c). However, that is not to say that the ipl2 strives to
take the place of a traditional in-person library. The ipl2 strives to “explore what the rich history
and intellectual traditions of librarianship have to offer the dynamic but chaotic world of the
Internet” (The ipl2 Consortium, n.d.d).
IPL2 has been designed to cater to patrons of the digital world: it offers resources for kids
and teenagers and on a plethora of subjects. Ipl2 has created its own original content such as
“Special Collections Created by ipl2” but also allow patrons to search for reliable information
from other Internet resources.
Human Computer Interaction
Human computer interaction (HCI) is the “study of how people use technological
artifacts and their design” and the study of “how these artifacts can be designed to facilitate this
use” (May, 2002, p. 7031). In order to fully understand ipl2’s capabilities, three steps were
followed:
•
Five interviews were conducted with individuals with no ties to this particular course.
•
Personas and scenarios were created after reviewing interview results.
•
Heuristic evaluations were carried out based on interview scenarios to evaluate ipl2.
3
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
As stated previously, five interviews were conducted with people outside of Info 608 who
have involvement in K-12 education. Participants were recruited based on personal connections
to the authors or from inquiries through a work or friendship-based network. Participants
included a student in junior high school, a retired school librarian, teachers, and a retired teacher
who now tutors at a community center.
A persona and scenario was created for every person who was interviewed for this particular
project. A persona is a description “of typical users of the product under development that the
designers can focus on and design the product for” (Preece et. al, 2011, p. 481). It is because of
this statement that individuals with some sort of affiliation to K-12 education were selected. A
persona includes an individual’s “skills, attitudes, tasks, and environment” and each individual
persona has different goals and aspirations (Preece et. al, 2011, p. 484). For example, one person
who was interviewed wishes to “direct teachers/educators to teach resources in a specific subject
area” while another interviewee has the goal of playing his guitar often.
A scenario “describes human activities or tasks in a story that allows exploration and
discussion of contexts, needs, and requirements” (Preece et. al, 2011, p. 505). These stories
explain what the individual was trying to achieve. Scenarios are often unique just as personas
are. For example, although educators were interviewed, they each used ipl2 for different reasons:
•
A retired educator used the site to search for information on United States presidents
•
A different educator performed searches on the solar system
•
A third educator searched Spanish materials she could use in her classroom
•
A high school librarian assists a student in finding information on Amerigo Vespucci
•
A high school student searches independently for foosball information
4
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
5
Together, a persona and scenario gives individuals an idea of who exactly the users are
and what they do in order to fulfill their goals. Each persona and scenario that was created by our
individual group members can be found at the end of this report.
A heuristic evaluation attempts “to find the usability problems in the design so that they
can be attended to as part of an iterative design process” (Nielsen, 2005). In order to conduct a
heuristic evaluation, a small group of individuals test out the website to see if there is anything
wrong with the heuristics. It is a “method for quick, cheap, and easy evaluation of the user
interface” (Danino, 2001). Essentially, one will select evaluators who have experience with the
site and those who do not have experience with the site. After browsing the site for some time,
each user will assess the site based on the ten main principles (Nielsen, 2005):
•
Visibility of system status
•
Recognition rather than recall
•
Match between the system and the real
world
•
Flexibility and ease of use
•
•
Aesthetic and minimalist design
User control and freedom
•
Helping users recognize, diagnose,
and recover from errors
•
Help and documentation
•
Consistency and standards
•
Error prevention
A summary of the findings will be further discussed in this report.
Study Limitations
As in any other study, limitations do exist. Questionnaires were used as a basis for
interviewing typical users for the use in developing personas and scenarios. Reeves et al. (2005)
explain that although questionnaires are a common evaluation tool, they tend to have limited
utility in usability evaluations (p. 34). That is, our interview was able to find some of the
problems with ipl2’s usability but did not give us a comprehensive list of every problem.
Another limitation was due to time constraints: the user only used the incredibly large site for a
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
certain amount of time and then was asked about their opinions. With being exposed to the site
for such little time, it was extremely difficult to evaluate every aspect of the site.
Although ipl2 is directed more towards those in K-12, individuals not affiliated with this
type of education may also use the site. Therefore, it may be helpful for future investigators to
also get the opinion of those individuals. Although we were unable to find every problem, our
team did evaluate heuristics that seemed to be common problems that were brought up by the
interviewees. Our findings can be used to determine usability problems with those who are
somehow affiliated with K-12 education.
Summary and Prioritization of Test Results
Heuristic evaluations of the Internet Public Library (ipl2) were completed utilizing the
personas and scenario/tasks developed by each team member. The persona and scenario/task
gives us a user’s perspective of the IPL whereby we can evaluate and assess usability
issues/comments pertaining to IPL (Reeves et al., 2005, p. 33).
The heuristic evaluation is based on ten usability heuristics and the degree and/or severity
of the selected heuristic (Reeves et al., 2005, p. 33). The results have been compiled into an
attached Excel spreadsheet (Table 1) which lists the test results by the most chosen heuristic
number (in descending order) and severity (in ascending order).
The most frequently chosen usability finding was heuristic #2, Match Between System
and the Real World - with a highest severity of 4 (major). Most of the usability
problems/comments were related to how effective the results are based on the type of search
information being used. The common properties are search and navigation features.
6
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
7
The most frequent usability findings include heuristic #10, Help and Documentation
,which has a severity of 3 (major), and heuristic #7, Flexibility and Efficiency of Use, which has
a severity of 4 (catastrophe). Problematic areas include “Search Help” and “Ask a Librarian.”
Heuristics #1 and #9 were the least chosen with a severity of 2 and 3, respectively.
Common findings pertain to the search engine. Opinions differed on heuristic severity, ranging
from “no problem” to “catastrophe.” Evaluations for heuristic #6 were similar in that severity
ratings were either 2 or 3.
Based on the description of problems/comments from the heuristic evaluation, the most
commonly identified issues of ipl2 include usability, reliability, availability, and functionality.
Table 1. Prioritization of Test Results
Description of Problem/Comments
Heuristic Severity
Number
Evaluator
IPL2 straight-forward and easy to use based on prior experience
2
0
Lisa
Romanoski
Error message does not provide instructions on how to correct the
issue if not no text entered into search box and search executed.
Should be clear for the kid audience.
Error message text is confusing with its split into two sections.
2
3
Heather
Sherman
The IPL search engine can sometimes search for information which
does not meet the criteria definition and/or purpose; thus user
needs to come up with many searches.
2
3
Jackie
Ortanez
City searches not useful.
2
3
Jackie
Ortanez
Searching conventions may be unfamiliar to average user.
2
3
Lina
Bertinelli
Resources are not listed in a logical order
2
3
Lina
Bertinelli
No section for middle school students who are not “kids” or
teenagers.
2
3
Tiffany
Chow
Resources for kids and teens are not organized in any particular
order.
2
3
Tiffany
Chow
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Description of Problem/Comments
8
Heuristic Severity
Number
Evaluator
No way to determine how search results are organized.
2
4
Tiffany
Chow
Difficulty navigating back to previous pages.
2
4
Tiffany
Chow
The help librarian and frequently asked questions were helpful for
basic questions.
10
0
Jackie
Ortanez
“Search Help” link clearly visible under the search bar.
10
0
Lina
Bertinelli
User didn't need help; noticed "Search Help" and "Ask a
Librarian."
10
0
Lisa
Romanoski
The organization of the IPL design appears to not flow well.
10
2
Jackie
Ortanez
There should be some type of interactive tutorial to train user;
especially, since this is information that educators need to access.
10
3
Jackie
Ortanez
If search is not working well, maybe there should be some type of
alert box to inform user to search different criteria.
10
3
Jackie
Ortanez
There is no link to help the user. That is, if a user is unfamiliar
with the site, there is no “help” button.
10
3
Tiffany
Chow
User can typically find what he or she is looking for.
7
0
Lisa
Romanoski
Include clear button on search box so when the user clicks on the
back browser button the search criteria has been removed.
7
2
Heather
Sherman
Search strings with multiple words will sometimes yield results
with any and not all of those words.
7
3
Lina
Bertinelli
Resources are only easy to find on straightforward and popular
topics.
7
3
Lina
Bertinelli
On the main search page, unable to specify to search special
collections created by ipl2.
7
3
Tiffany
Chow
Difficulty navigating back to previous pages.
7
4
Tiffany
Chow
Pages do not load properly onto Internet Explorer or links do not
work properly.
7
4
Tiffany
Chow
User aware of available search options such as the search box.
3
0
Lisa
Romanoski
There should be a separate help screen for search help? function.
3
1
Heather
Sherman
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Description of Problem/Comments
9
Heuristic Severity
Number
Evaluator
The user has to click on the browser back button to return to
previous screen instead of clicking a back arrow link.
3
2
Heather
Sherman
Upon choosing icons, for example - "For Kids", there is no user
friendly button to go back to previous screen.
3
2
Jackie
Ortanez
User must return to the main page to switch to a different section.
3
2
Lina
Bertinelli
User must return to the main page to switch to a different section.
6
2
Lina
Bertinelli
IPL2 search box search drop-down should contain the same list as
the home screen.
6
3
Heather
Sherman
User should be able to access accurate and efficient information
from IPL.
6
3
Jackie
Ortanez
Left links in blue box and center page links confusing.
6
3
Lisa
Romanoski
4
0
Lisa
Romanoski
When a user hovers over a graphic or minor category they should
receive a visual cue in a different color.
4
1
Heather
Sherman
“For Teens” section does not look consistent with “Resources by
Subject” and “For Kids” sections.
4
1
Lina
Bertinelli
Search results should have navigation buttons on both sides of the
screen. The numeric listing should include a page navigator.
4
2
Heather
Sherman
Sub-category mouse click should be disabled since it just refreshes
page.
5
0
Heather
Sherman
5
2
Lisa
Romanoski
Search feature relies on searching conventions the average user
may not be familiar with.
5
3
Lina
Bertinelli
The partners listed on the bottom of the website do not need to be
listed on every single page.
8
1
Tiffany Chow
Search result page displays same source multiple times, with
different descriptions.
8
2
Lina
Bertinelli
Left links and center page links confusing.
8
3
Lisa
Romanoski
User understands system operations.
1
0
Lisa
Romanoski
If familiar, site operates similarly to Google.
Search box may not yield desired results; no feedback.
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Description of Problem/Comments
10
Heuristic Severity
Number
MySpace link to connect with ipl2 on main page is not viewable.
User has to deduce certain judgments pending search box results.
Search text reappears in search ipl2 box when user clicks on need
help? Button.
Evaluator
1
2
Tiffany
Chow
9
1
Lisa
Romanoski
9
3
Heather
Sherman
Recommendations for Design
Our team has identified the following recommendations for ipl2:
1. Visibility of System Status
When users are navigating and searching, the user is able to understand what the system
is doing. One area that needs to be updated is the set of links for Facebook, Twitter, and
MySpace. While the Facebook and Twitter links take the user to the respective websites, the
MySpace link connects
the user to a page not
viewable by the public
(Figure 1). This can
confuse users because
they don’t know what’s
going with the website.
Figure 1. Visibility and System Status: The MySpace link appears to be
inoperable (ipl.org).
2. Match between System and the Real World
When users visit ipl2, they may do so with the expectation that the website performs
similarly to other websites with which they are familiar, such as Google or Bing. There are
several instances where ipl2 could be improved to accommodate such user expectations:
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
•
11
Provide more robust website link results lists that go beyond limiting links to educational,
encyclopedic, and government education sites.
•
Inform the user with an explanation of why a website link results list is limited to only tested,
reliable websites.
•
Recognize user action and show factual information such as city data first and then a website
link results list consisting of educational and governmental sites, as compared to only listing
just the link results.
•
Tailor to specific age groups, perhaps by
providing options listing ages as opposed
to kids and teenager categories, for
example (Figure 2).
•
Present information according to useranticipated conventions, such as
alphabetical listing.
•
Figure 2. Match Between System and the Real World:
Are there other options for youth who don't fall into
"kids" or "teens" (ipl.org)?
Present website link results lists in an
organized manner instead of
overwhelming users with hundreds of
links.
•
Ensure results lists are in a logical order.
Figure 3 shows an example of references
for Teen Sports. The references appear to
be listed randomly.
•
Provide a visible “back” button so that
Figure 3. Match Between System and the Real World:
There does not appear to be any logic behind the order of
these references on the page.
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
12
users don’t have to figure out how to navigate back to previous pages.
3. User Control and Freedom
Ipl2 does a good job of providing a
user with additional options for searching for
information instead of just website exploration,
such as the inclusion of the search box.
However, ipl2 could be improved by providing
a way return to previous screens, as mentioned
Figure 4. User Control and Freedom: Ipl2
does not have a navigational aid for returning to
previous screens (ipl.org).
above. It’s not intuitive to the user how to navigate to other sections from a chosen section other
than to return to the ipl2 home page (Figure 4).
4. Consistency and Standards
There are several areas in which ipl2 can better adhere to user platform conventions:
•
Design search tools similarly to Google or Bing so that users aren’t confused as to why their
ipl2 results look so different from search results lists generated by competitor sites.
•
Ensure consistency between font styles, color, underlining, and highlighting when a user’s
mouse is moving across the page.
•
Re-design the teen and kid sections such that they present information the same way,
including organization by headings and subheadings.
•
Ensure easy, consistent transitioning from one page to another within ipl2.
5. Error Prevention
In regard to providing good error messages and preventing problems from occurring, ipl2
can inform users with actions they can take to produce better website link results lists if search
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
13
box terms don’t yield what the user is looking for. Feedback can ease frustration and make for a
more enjoyable user experience, ensuring repeat user visits to the site.
6. Recognition Rather than Recall
In his book The Design of Everyday Things, Donald Norman shares with readers his
findings that people learn better and are more comfortable when knowledge required to perform
a task is available externally (2002, p. 189). When considering ipl2, the website can do a better
job by making things more visible and easily discernible to users by providing:
•
Options to switch website sections instead of making a user figure out he or she must
navigate back to the homepage.
•
All subject matter and special collection webpage links in
the search box drop-down menu instead of making users rely
on their memory of the ipl2 homepage (Figure 5).
•
Interactive tutorials for users not familiar with the site with
the goal of better user experience.
•
Figure 5. Recognition Rather
than Recall: Ipl2 could include
all subjects and special
collection links in its drop-down
menu (ipl.org).
Differentiation between the links in
the blue box on the left of the
screen and the blue-highlighted
links in the page center (Figure 6).
Figure 6. Recognition Rather than Recall: How are the blue
box options different from the blue-highlighted text (ipl.org)?
7. Flexibility and Efficiency of Use
According to Reeves et al. (2005), users “want to find the information they desire in the most
effective and efficient manner possible” (p. 38). There are several areas in which ipl2 can be redesigned for greater efficiency, including provision of:
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
•
14
A “clear contents” button for the
search box. If a user enters a search
topic in the box and chooses to return
to the previous screen, the search box
retains the search text. The user has
to click on ipl2 to clear the text
(Figure 7).
•
A search capability that doesn’t list results with some
Figure 7. Recovering from Errors:
Entering Amerigo Vespucci as a search
term did not yield results; the search
box retains the search terms (ipl.org).
or none of search word terminiology.
•
Clearly mapped resouces that go beyond listing
popular topics.
8. Aesthetic and Minimalist design
According to Norman (2002), aesthetics can either help or hinder usability of certain
things (p. 79). There is a tradeoff between presenting information and also making it less visible
if it’s not needed all at once (Norman, 2002, p. 79). In regard to ipl2, the following items could
be redesigned to minimize information overload on the user:
•
Place the partner list on one webpage, not at the bottom of every single page.
•
Revise query results so that results don’t appear multiple times with different descriptions.
•
As metnioned previously, distinguish the purpose of the links in the blue box on the left from
the blue high-lighted links in the page center (see Figure 5).
9. Help users Recognize, Diagnose, and Recover from Errors
To help users recognize and recover from errors, ipl2 can:
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
•
Provide a more effective search box tool with user feedback, such as a pop-up feature that
can ask users if they’ve found what they’re looking for and offer suggestions.
•
Ensure the search box remains clear of text if user navigates back to the previous search page
if they don’t find what they’re looking for (see Figure 6).
10. Help and Documentation
Although the help librarian, frequently asked questions, and search help link tools are helpful for
basic questions, the ipl2 help and documentation functions could be enhanced by:
•
As mentioned previously, providing feedback if the site detects the user’s search is not
yielding useful results.
•
Also mentioned previously, providing interactive tutorials to educate users.
Conclusion
The ipl2 website is valued by its users as a source of reliable information, but there is
room for improvement in making that information more accessible. All of our interviewees told
us that they are familiar with search engines, and several commented that search engines were
easier to use and retrieved more results than ipl2. Through our heuristic evaluations, we
confirmed the difficulty of navigating ipl2, understanding its organization, using its search
feature, and finding help tools. ipl2 will never be able to match the infinite results provided by
Google, as each resource needs to be reviewed for accuracy, but they can fix their usability
flaws.
The recommendations we provided would not change the purpose of ipl2, but simply
make the website more attractive, consistent, and easy to use. Our recommendations focus on the
way ipl2 displays information, options, and feedback and maintains service integrity.
15
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Despite a few design weaknesses, the users of ipl2 recognize its worth. Each of
our interviewees stated that they would recommend the website to other students or educators
and remarked that the information found on the site was more trustworthy than the information
found through search engines. With a few adjustments, we believe ipl2 can be a priceless
resource of information users can not only trust, but easily find as well.
16
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
References
Danino, N. (2001, September 3). Heuristic evaluation: A step-by-step guide. Retrieved
03/16/2012 from: http://www.sitepoint.com/heuristic-evaluation-guide/.
The ipl2 Consortium. (n.d.a) About ipl2. Retrieved 03/14/2012, from
http://www.ipl.org/div/about.
The ipl2 Consortium. (n.d.b) Timeline of ipl2 history. ipl2: Information You Can Trust.
Retrieved 03/12/2012, from http://www.ipl2.org/div/about/timeline.
The ipl2 Consortium. (n.d.c) The Mission and Vision Statements of ipl2. Retrieved 03/15/2012,
from http://ipl2.org/div/about/mission_and_vision.html
The ipl2 Consortium. (n.d.d) Frequently asked questions. ipl2: Information You Can Trust.
Retrieved 03/12/2012, from http://www.ipl2.org/div/about/iplfaq.html.
The ipl2 Consortium. (n.d.e) Statement of principles. ipl2: Information You Can Trust. Retrieved
03/12/2012, from http://www.ipl2.org/div/about/mission_and_vision.html.
The ipl2 Consortium. (n.d.f). The ipl2 Consortium — Members and Membership Information.
Retrieved 03/16/2012 from:
http://www.ipl.org/div/about/IPLconsortium/consortiumList.html.
The ipl2 Consortium. (n.d.g). Timeline of ipl2/IPL History. Retrieved 03/16/2012 from:
http://www.ipl2.org/div/about/timeline.
Jeng, J. (2005, June). What is Usability in the Context of the Digital Library and How Can it be
Measured? Information Technology and Libraries, 24, (2), 47.
May, J. (2002). Human-Computer Interaction. International Encyclopedia of the Social &
Behavioral Sciences, Oxford, 2001, 7031-7035.
Nielsen, J. (2005). Heuristic Evaluation. Retrieved from: http://www.useit.com/papers/heuristic
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REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Nielsen, J (2005). Ten Usability Heuristics. Retrieved from:
http://www.useit.com/papers/heuristic/heuristic_list.html.
Norman, D.A. 2002. The Design of Everyday Things. New York: Basic Books.
Preece, J., Rogers, Y., & Sharp, H. (2011). Interaction Design. (3rd Ed.) New York, NY: Wiley.
Reeves, T. C., Apedoe, X.,& Woo, Y. H. (2005, July). Evaluating Digital Libraries: A UserFriendly Guide. Retrieved from:
http://drexel.blackboard.com/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab_id=_2_1&url=%2fwebapp
s%2fblackboard%2fexecute%2flauncher%3ftype%3dCourse%26id%3d_449400_1%26ur
l%3d.
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REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Appendix A: Team Interview Instrument
19
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Interviewee:
Interviewer:
1. Occupation?
2. Age?
3. Location?
4. How comfortable are you with computers?
5. Have you used the ipl2 website before?
6. How did you discover the website? .
7. What devices (computer, iPad, smart phone etc) have you used to access the site?
8. Did you receive any training on ipl2?
9. How much time do you spend (per week? per month?) on ipl2?
10. Have you used other digital library sites?
11. Have you used digital resources on public or school library websites (like databases,
reference services, online catalog)?
12. How does ipl2 differ from those services?
13. Do you use search engines?
14. Which one(s)?
15. How does the ipl2 site differ from a search engine?
16. Is ipl2 more or less useful than a search engine?
17. Has the digital library simplified processes or has it made things more difficult?
18. What do you think is the primary use of ipl2?
19. What types of materials have you accessed from the site? (If you have never used it: What
types of materials do you think you would access?)
20. How easy is ipl2 to navigate?
21. Do you think students would be able to navigate it?
22. Of what age group?
23. How long does it take you to find the information you need on the ipl2 site?
24. Have you contacted the help desk for assistance in using the site?
25. Have you used the Ask-a-Librarian feature?
26. Is the material organized for specific age groups appropriate for those groups?
27. Have you encouraged your students to use ipl2?
28. Do you think ipl2 could be a helpful classroom tool? How?
29. Would you recommend it to other students/educators?
20
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
30. What do you like about ipl2?
31. What don't you like about ipl2?
32. Have you had any problems using ipl2?
33. Can you suggest any improvements for the ipl2 site?
34. Why would you steer school children towards using IPL2 instead of running searches in
search engines such as Google?
21
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Appendix B: Individual Interview Notes
22
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Interviewee: Robert Bertinelli
Interviewer: Lina Bertinelli
1) Occupation? Retired special education teacher, tutor at community-center.
2) Age? 65
3) Location? Greenville, South Carolina
4) How comfortable are you with computers? On a scale of one to ten, five. Love using it once
I know a program. But takes a while to learn them.
5) Have you used the ipl2 website before? Not before this interview.
a) What devices (computer, ipad, smart phone etc) have you used to access the site? Acer
laptop on Internet Explorer, then Mozilla Firefox.
b) Did you receive any training on ipl2? No
c) How much time do you spend (per week? per month?) on ipl2?
6) Have you used other digital library sites? No
7) Have you used digital resources on public or school library websites (like databases,
reference services, online catalog)? Yeah
a) How does ipl2 differ from those services? Liked the school library website better, access
to catalog, access to databases.
8) Do you use search engines? Yes
a) Which one(s)? Bing, Yahoo, Google
b) How does the ipl2 site differ from a search engine? You get more information faster on a
search engine, but ipl2 is probably more reliable.
c) Is ipl2 more or less useful than a search engine? Less useful.
9) Has the digital library simplified processes or has it made things more difficult? Both. It’s
easier because everything’s right there in one place, but it’s harder because I have to keep up
with the technology.
10) What do you think is the primary use of ipl2? Research.
11) What types of materials have you accessed from the site? (If you have never used it: What
types of materials do you think you would access?) Items for kids and teens.
12) How easy is ipl2 to navigate? Fairly easy.
13) Do you think students would be able to navigate it? Yes
23
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Bertinelli Interview
a) Of what age group? Even elementary school students. I’d probably have to help the 1st
and 2nd graders.
14) How long does it take you to find the information you need on the ipl2 site? Very fast.
15) Have you contacted the help desk for assistance in using the site? No
-How quickly were you able to receive help?
16) Have you used the Ask-a-Librarian feature? No
17) Is the material organized for specific age groups appropriate for those groups? Yes
18) Have you encouraged your students to use ipl2? Not yet
a) If not, would you? Yes, definitely
19) Do you think ipl2 could be a helpful classroom tool? Yes
a) How? Mostly social studies tools, maybe science fair topics. They have a lot of good
activities.
20) Would you recommend it to other students/educators? Yes
21) What do you like about ipl2? Very fast, really easy, got me right to where I wanted, lots of
information. Colorful, bright, organized well. A lot of resources for kids.
22) What don't you like about ipl2? Technical issues, sometimes hard to navigate back to
previous page. Story time: Wish it said how long it is.
23) Have you had any problems using ipl2? Yes
a) Please describe. Pages not loading on Internet Explorer; links not working.
24) Can you suggest any improvements for the ipl2 site? I’d like more information directly on
the site, instead of linking away.
24
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Interviewee: Lily Cruz
Interviewer: Tiffany Chow
1) Occupation? Elementary school. Third grade gifted class from 2001-2009, first grade from
2009-present.
2) Age? 32
3) Location? Hacienda Heights, CA. Works in Los Angeles, CA.
4) How comfortable are you with computers? Is very comfortable using it for basic functions:
Microsoft office, internet, I-tunes.
5) Have you used the ipl2 website before? No.
a) How did you discover the website? Just found out about it right now.
6) What devices (computer, ipad, smart phone etc) have you used to access the site? Macbook
pro
a) Did you receive any training on ipl2? No
b) How much time do you spend (per week? per month?) on ipl2? Just this one time, about
45 minutes.
7) Have you used other digital library sites? No
8) Have you used digital resources on public or school library websites (like databases,
reference services, online catalog)? Yes. Uses digital resources on public library websites –
but only for catalog services, used reference service once.
a) How does ipl2 differ from those services? Able to actually search for information, it is
not an actual library – holds information. Not all services have �ask a librarian’ feature.
9) Do you use search engines? Yes
a) Which one(s)? Google, Yahoo
b) How does the ipl2 site differ from a search engine? I think ipl2 is definitely more reliable
because it doesn’t seem to take you to random sites that can be written by anyone—like
blogs. The sites it directs you to are concrete.
c) Is ipl2 more or less useful than a search engine? I can’t really say, I’m sure ipl2 is more
useful in finding information but I think it took a lot longer for me to find the information
I was looking for. I had to use specific key terms to find my information.
10) Has the digital library simplified processes or has it made things more difficult? I don’t think
it’s difficult but I can see how it is difficult for teachers who are a lot older and who do not
have much experience with computers.
25
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Chow Interview
11) What do you think is the primary use of ipl2? Research. I like that its kid-friendly since it
has a section “For Kids” and “For Teens.”
12) What types of materials have you accessed from the site? (If you have never used it: What
types of materials do you think you would access?) I used it to find some information about
space and the distance between the moon and Earth for my solar system lecture.
13) How easy is ipl2 to navigate? It was fairly easy to navigate through the pages but it was a bit
tricky finding the information. I kept using the search terms “distance between the moon and
Earth” but got zero results. After about 20 minutes, I decided to try a different search term
“solar system.” That’s when I started getting results.
14) Do you think students would be able to navigate it? Yes
a) Of what age group? Probably kids in middle school and high school.
15) How long does it take you to find the information you need on the ipl2 site? Took me about
30 minutes to find what I was looking for.
16) Have you contacted the help desk for assistance in using the site? No
17) Have you used the Ask-a-Librarian feature? No
18) Is the material organized for specific age groups appropriate for those groups? I think so but
under the “For Teens” area, there was a link to “Graphic Novels” and I didn’t like the sound
of that even though it probably isn’t sexual.
19) Have you encouraged your students to use ipl2? Not yet.
a) If not, would you? I would probably tell the parents about it. I teach first grade so they
shouldn’t be using the Internet on their own.
20) Do you think ipl2 could be a helpful classroom tool? Yes
a) How? It would show the students what types of materials online are appropriate in
searching for information. Not everything found on Google is reliable but it seems like
ipl2 has very reliable sources.
21) Would you recommend it to other students/educators? Yes
22) What do you like about ipl2? I like that the sources are reliable and that their motto is
“information you can trust.”
23) What don't you like about ipl2? I don’t like that search terms need to be exact with their
search terms to look for information. If I had typed in “distance from Earth to moon” on
Google, I’m pretty sure hundreds of results would have come up. Since I didn’t use the
correct search terms that ipl2 was looking for, I wasted a lot of my own time.
26
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Chow Interview
24) Have you had any problems using ipl2? No, I wouldn’t go so far as to say it’s a problem, it
may just be my own fault.
25) Can you suggest any improvements for the ipl2 site? I know I have complained about this a
lot already, but their search engine needs to be a lot broader. I feel like if you don’t use the
correct search terms, then you’re out of luck. Even if it does have the information you’re
looking for. I think they can improve on that somehow.
27
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Interviewee Name: Jack Liban
Interviewed by: Jackie Ortanez
1. Occupation? Junior High Student
2. Age? 15
3. Geographical Location? Daly City, California
4. How comfortable are you with computers? Comfortable. Feels pretty good.
5. Have you used ipl2 website? If yes, how did you discover the website?
6. What is the primary use for the IPL user? Access “For Teens” site to get sports information
for a high school class project. For example, foosball report.
7. How does ipl2 differ from other digital library sites? N/A
8. How usable is the site? Very good. It gives you the different categories of different sports
that you can choose to give you information. For my foosball report, it gives you detailed
information and objectives about the sport.
9. How easy is the site to navigate? Very user friendly.
10. Do you think students would be able to navigate it? Yes, with the proper knowledge of how
to search on the site.
11. How interactive is it and how consistent is it? Yes, it interactive and you can go back to the
information.
12. Have you used other digital library sites? If yes, please describe? No, this is the first one.
13. Have you used digital resources on public or school library websites (like databases,
reference services)? Yes, to access listing of books for books reports.
14. How does the ipl2 site differ from a search engine providing web links? The difference is the
type of subject matter and the amount of search information. The ipl2 site is more like an
organized encyclopedia/dictionary and reliable and variety of information that you are
searching for.
15. What do you like/don't like about the site? This site really has a good purpose for resource
information for presentations.
16. Have you been able to get your questions answered? YES
17. What are the biggest changes you've seen from use of hard copy library card catalogs to
digital catalogs? Easier to access still need to find more media files for reports for visual
presentations such as Powerpoint presentations.
28
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Ortanez Interview
18. How long does it take you to find need information on ipl2 site? Fast. Probably less than a
few minutes as long as you know what you have in mind.
19. What are the advantages and disadvantages of digital card catalog? Can they be designed
better? For a first time user, unable to answer question at this time.
20. Give tasks to complete and rate how easy to use by feature. The feature are great for a first
time user. Unable to rate but feel pretty good about it.
21. Have you used the contact librarian feature? No, but I have viewed into the feature for the
first time.
22. Has the digital library simplified processes or has it made things more difficult? It has made
the process much easier.
23. Can you suggest any improvements for usability on the IPL site? Not as first time user.
24. What devices (computer, iPad, smart phone etc) have you used to access the site? Laptops,
iPad, desktop.
25. How useful is ipl2 site compared to a web search engine? Very useful because it gives you
more reliable information because it goes directly to the source of the subject matter.
26. Is the material appropriate for the age groups? Yes, because the features allow you to select
the age group.
27. How can ipl2 be used for class projects? Mainly for presentations, book reports.
28. What common mistakes would you expect students/people to make when using the site?
Probably the subject matter does not relate to the purpose of the search.
29. Have you/would you want to encourage your students to use ipl2? N/A
30. Did you receive any training prior to utilizing ipl2? No
31. For tasks: find some ideas for science fair topics for elementary students? How easy was it to
find? Very easy.
32. What types of materials have you accessed from the site? Sports, Sports Figures, Sports
Trivia
33. Was there a time when you were not able to access the digital materials? Yes, when there
was a minor glitch in the system.
34. Have you contacted the help desk for assistance in using the site? how quickly were you able
to receive help? No.
35. How much time do you spend per week, per month on the IPL? When necessary, 3 times per
week.
29
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Ortanez Interview
36. For what purpose do you/would use ipl? For learning.
37. Would you recommend it to other students/educators? Yes.
30
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Interviewee: Marsha Hahn
Interviewer: Lisa Romanoski
1) Occupation?
Retired school librarian. K-12 experience. Last 18 years as a high school media
specialist. Currently adjunct reference librarian at Gloucester County College (NJ) and
Rowan University
2) Age? 68
3) Location? Gloucester County NJ
4) How comfortable are you with computers? On a scale of 1-10 about 7-8
5) Have you used the ipl2 website before? Yes
a) How did you discover the website? Used it when it was Librarian’s Internet Index.
b) What devices (computer, ipad, smart phone etc) have you used to access the site?
Computer
c) Did you receive any training on ipl2? No
d) How much time do you spend (per week? per month?) on ipl2? Maybe 20 minutes per
month to check sites that I use on my LibGuide. Other times as needed.
6) Have you used other digital library sites? No
7) Have you used digital resources on public or school library websites (like databases,
reference services, online catalog)? Yes
a) How does ipl2 differ from those services? I use those (or refer patrons to them) for
specific information. I find ipl2 to be a more complete resource. It would be somewhere
that I would send a teacher/educator who is looking for teaching resources in a subject
area.
8) Do you use search engines? Yes
a) Which one(s)? Generally one of the Googles.
b) How does the ipl2 site differ from a search engine? I put anything in Google and almost
always get the response I am looking for. I use ipl2 when I know what I want but need
more complete and authoritative results.
c) Is ipl2 more or less useful than a search engine? It depends on what I want at the time.
9) Has the digital library simplified processes or has it made things more difficult? I see it as an
additional resource, not one that simplifies or complicates.
10) What do you think is the primary use of ipl2? I see it as an excellent resource for educators
and students ….. truly having a digital public library at their fingertips.
31
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Romanoski Interview
11) What types of materials have you accessed from the site? (If you have never used it: What
types of materials do you think you would access?) I use it on my Children’s Literature
LibGuide.
12) How easy is ipl2 to navigate? I find it very user-friendly.
13) Do you think students would be able to navigate it? Yes
a) Of what age group? I would guess from age 10 and older.
14) How long does it take you to find the information you need on the ipl2 site? I have never
timed my use.
15) Have you contacted the help desk for assistance in using the site? No
16) Have you used the Ask-a-Librarian feature? No
17) Is the material organized for specific age groups appropriate for those groups? I believe it is.
18) Have you encouraged your students to use ipl2? When I was in the high school setting, I
encouraged them to use lii. Obviously, if I have it on my LibGuide, I am encouraging
college students to use it.
19) Do you think ipl2 could be a helpful classroom tool? Yes
a) How? Great resource for the students doing research.
20) Would you recommend it to other students/educators? Yes
21) What do you like about ipl2? Wealth of reliable and in-depth material for student use.
22) What don't you like about ipl2? Haven’t thought about that.
23) Have you had any problems using ipl2? No
24) Can you suggest any improvements for the ipl2 site? No
25) Why would you steer school children towards using IPL2 instead of running searches in
search engines such as Google? I generally avoid sending students to Google when I know
that I can send them to a more authoritative resource i.e. IPL2 or an online database, etc.
Students tend to go to Google without my sending them there. Students, especially the
younger ones, often have difficulty distinguishing reliable sources from ones that are less
reliable. Also I think the kids IPL2 section is great, and I could see my 10 year old
granddaughter using it.
32
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Interviewee: Danielle Palmer
Interviewer: Heather Sherman
1) Occupation? 5th grade Language Arts teacher
2) Age? 34
3) Location? Ft. Lauderdale, FL
4) How comfortable are you with computers? Very comfortable. I use them daily in my
classroom and for my own schoolwork
5) Have you used the ipl2 website before? No
a) How did you discover the website? A friend sent it to me.
b) What devices (computer, iPad, smart phone etc) have you used to access the site? A
laptop and iPhone.
c) Did you receive any training on ipl2? No
d) How much time do you spend (per week? per month?) on ipl2? 1 hour/week
6) Have you used other digital library sites? Yes
a) Please describe. I’ve used www.storyplace.org which is a website for elementary student,
and the International Children’s digital library.
b) Did you receive any training on these sites? No
c) How does ipl2 differ from other digital library sites? It has a lot more information.
d) Which do you prefer? Story place because it is much easier to navigate, particularly for
students.
7) Have you used digital resources on public or school library websites (like databases,
reference services, online catalog)? Yes
a) How does ipl2 differ from those services? Ipl2 gives a lot more information and you can
search by topic.
8) Do you use search engines? Yes
a) Which one(s)? Google.
b) How does the ipl2 site differ from a search engine? Google seems easier (just put in a
search term and a LOT of information comes up).
c) Is ipl2 more or less useful than a search engine? Less useful.
9) Has the digital library simplified processes or has it made things more difficult? More
difficult if you’re asking about the search-ability aspect.
33
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Sherman Interview
10) What do you think is the primary use of ipl2? To get students to read and listen to books that
are of interest to them.
11) What types of materials have you accessed from the site? (If you have never used it: What
types of materials do you think you would access?) I would access the lesson plans page,
and I would let my students get books to listen to and read, since it is important for students
to both hear the reading and have a choice in what they read. I would also have them look at
the homework help and writing references.
12) How easy is ipl2 to navigate? It is easy, particularly for students. However, the way the
books are listed are a little confusing and there is too much listed. Students become easily
distracted/confused and need bigger links or less links in order to find things.
13) Do you think students would be able to navigate it? Yes.
a) Of what age group? 4th grade and higher
14) How long does it take you to find the information you need on the ipl2 site? Not that longabout two minutes.
15) Have you contacted the help desk for assistance in using the site? No.
16) Have you used the Ask-a-Librarian feature? No
17) Is the material organized for specific age groups appropriate for those groups? Yes
18) Have you encouraged your students to use ipl2?
a) If not, would you? Most definitely.
19) Do you think ipl2 could be a helpful classroom tool? Yes
a) How? My students love to use the computer and do research. The ipl2 would allow them
to use the computer, read, and research all in one place.
20) Would you recommend it to other students/educators? Yes
21) What do you like about ipl2? Lots of resources available.
22) What don't you like about ipl2? Too much on the screen at times.
23) Have you had any problems using ipl2? No
24) Can you suggest any improvements for the ipl2 site? Use less links (particularly with the
listing of books and have more color. Maybe have the students click on a picture of the title
instead of the link.
34
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Appendix C: Personas and Scenarios
35
Persona
Name: Robert
Age: 65
Location: Greenville, SC
Occupation: Tutor for afterschool program;
Retired special education
teacher
Education: M.Ed in special
education
Robert recently moved to Greenville, South Carolina
from Tucson, Arizona, where he worked as a special
education teacher of 6th, 7th, and 8th graders. He now
has a part-time position as a tutor for an after-school
program at a community center in an underserved
area. His duties include helping elementary-school
students with homework and providing them with fun
and educational activities.
Though Robert doesn't feel completely confident in his
computer skills, he loves what new technology has
added to his teaching experience. He prefers the Elmo
document camera to traditional projectors, has helped
students navigate the internet, and has encouraged his
students to use both digital and physical resources.
Robert is not familiar with digital libraries, but has used
online services from both school and public libraries. He
feels comfortable using online catalogs and databases
such as Ebscohost for research.
Because Robert currently works
for a community-center, rather
than a school, he and his
students do not have access to
a school library. The public
library is also not close enough
to easily visit from the center.
While there are several
textbooks and encyclopedias
available in the classroom, his
most valued tools are the
computers.
Robert also loves music, and
tries to incorporate his guitar
into lessons whenever possible.
Goals
Г�пѓ� To find educational resources for elementary-school students
Г�пѓ� To stay knowledgeable about a wide-range of subjects
Г�пѓ� To play his guitar often
1
2
Scenario
Robert is planning for his next afternoon at
the community center. He knows that some
of his 4th grade students are working on a
report on United States presidents and wants
to find some resources that will be easy for
the nine year olds to use and understand.
He has recently heard of the site ipl.org and
wants to check it out using Internet Explorer.
He is able to access the main page, but
when he tries to view the resource pages,
they look blank. Unsure of the problem, he
decides to open in the site in Mozilla Firefox
instead, and Robert is able to explore the
"For Kids" section for materials.
Since ipl2 has a sidebar of popular topics,
he is able to find the US Presidents section
easily. There he finds a chronological list of
the presidents, which provides basic facts
and links to more in-depth biographies,
documents, pictures, and even audio files.
Robert also tries looking through the History
section to see if there are any additional
resources on US Presidents, but only finds
material on Abraham Lincoln.
He is still happy with the resources he has
found and decides to show his students the
site in class the next day.
While on ipl2, Robert notices the Resources
for Parents & Teachers page. Since he loves
music, he explores the Art & Music section
and finds a great website with musical lesson
plans and activities for children. There is often
time for fun activities when the students finish
their homework, so Robert decides to use
one of the lesson plans to teach the children
about musical instruments. Plus, he is excited
for the excuse to bring his guitar and drums
into the classroom.
Overall, Robert is pleased that he was able
to find a wide variety of resources on ipl2
and that he was able to plan for an entire
afternoon on one website.
PERSONA
Background Information:
Lily was born in Tegucigalpa, Nicaragua and grew up in Los
Angeles, California. She attended California State University, Los
Angeles from 1997-2001 where she received a scholarship to play
on their volleyball team. As a student athlete, she also worked
part-time at an elementary school as a teacher’s assistant. It was
during this time that she decided to become a teacher. In 2001,
Lily graduated summa cum laude with a degree in liberal studies.
Name: Lily Chow Cruz
Age: 32
Gender: Female
Occupation: Elementary school teacher. Third
grade gifted class from 2001 - 2009, first grade
from 2009 – present.
Devices: HP computers (School Use), Macbook
Pro, iPad 2 (Personal use)
Location: Hacienda Heights, California
Goals:
-
To search for new information and new
activities that will help foster her
student’s intellectual needs
-
To be a role model to her daughters and
her students
-
When not working, Lily is taking care of her two young daughters.
She often takes them on walks at the park or takes them to
Disneyland. She also spends a lot of time during the weekends to
take her eldest daughter to softball practices. Lily also enjoys time
to herself by working out at the gym whenever she can find a free
baby-sitter (usually her sister).
To be a great Mom while also being able
to balance a career
-
After graduating from school and receiving her teaching credential,
Lily was offered a full-time position as a teacher at the school she
worked at as an undergraduate. She has been working with this
school, Corona Avenue School, for over 10 years.
To maintain a healthy life style by being
able to work out on her own time
As a teacher, Lily fosters a child’s intellectual development. She
truly enjoys her job and is often on the Internet searching for new
ways to inspire her young students. She also uses the Internet to
search for information that she can add to her lesson plans. She
has recently discovered the ipl2 website (http://www.ipl2.org) and
hopes that she can use it to incorporate information with fun
activities for her students. This will be the first digital library that
she has worked with and hopes that it will be extremely helpful.
Scenario – Searching for Information
It is about the time of the year where Lily teaches her first grade class about the solar system. This year, she
decides to add more information to her lesson plan so that the children will maybe appreciate science and space
even more. Lily decides to use a new digital library website that she has heard about, ipl2. She logs onto the
website and is welcomed with the website’s motto, “Information You Can Trust.” She sighs in relief because she
knows she will be able to find reliable information.
Lily decides to click on the “For Kids” link so that later on she can show her students the website. By having the children
see there is a special location for them on the site, they may be more interested in using it. Lily wants to find the distance
between Earth and the moon so she types in “distance between Earth and moon.” Eight results pop up but none of these
contain the information she is searching for. She begins to wonder why this digital library does not contain the information
she needs. However, she quickly decides to use different search terms. She types in “how far is the Earth from the
moon.” She decides this may be a better search term because this may be the way a child searches for information when
using the site. Still, the same eight results pop up. Finally, Lily decides to try the term “solar system.” Fifteen results are
displayed and she is able to find her answer by clicking on the first website that is listed (NASA’s Solar System
Exploration: Kids). Although she was unable to search for the information by using search terms a child would use, she is
still happy with the results she found and is able to relay this information with her students during her solar system lecture.
I certify that this paper/project is entirely my own work. I have not quoted the words of any other person from a printed source or a
website without indicating what has been quoted and providing an appropriate citation. I have not submitted this assignment to satisfy
the requirements of any other course. Tiffany Chow March 8, 2012.
Digital Library ipl2 site
By Jackie Ortanez
Persona
Name
Age
Gender
Location
Enhancing my knowledge as a student researching for
materials in today’s digital world
GOALS
Jack Liban
-
15
Male
Daly City, California
Occupation 9th Grade Student
Computer
Background iPad, Toshiba Laptop
-
-
-
To study and learn more about technology
through research and utilizing & testing a
variety of devices
To research famous sports figures to get a
better understanding of the evolving
history of sports and how the game is
played strategically. Also to view media
files to get a better understanding of the
sport persona.
Able to access material in a way to be
better able to help other classmates
To continue to achieve higher grades
through a well rounded education
Background Information
Jack is in 9th grade attending a high school in Daly City, California. Jack loves playing sports such as baseball, football, and
basketball. He is in the baseball team for the Daly City Youth Baseball Organization. His love of sports through reading and
research allows him to utilize technology through different channels such as websites. Jack’s favorite subjects in school are
physical education, math, art and science. Jack utilizes the library system quite often to access materials for his class
assignments. Jack lives close to the ocean and spends his weekends biking and enjoying the scenery.
Jack would love to tie sports and technology utilizing a website of some sort such as a site to search for sports history, famous
figures and trivia. He wants to create a site which would be both interesting and exciting to his viewers. Jack has found on-line
search engines to help him with various creative ideas for building his site, but now he discovers reliable facts utilizing the
digital library site.
Scenario
Jack has been assigned to complete a sports Powerpoint presentation on “foosball’.
The requirements of his
presentation includes visual aids and instructions on how to play the game. Also, how players interact with one
another.
On the ipl2 website, Jack uses the feature “For Teens” to research the foosball information. After Jack clicks on the
search, he is given detailed information on a webpage of the sport “Foosball Source”. This site gives a
comprehensive broad spectrum of information on this topic. Jack feels pretty good at researching information on
the Ipl2 site. Jack finds this Ipl2 site to be very user friendly and fast.
The ipl2 site reminds Jack of an organized encyclopedia/dictionary with very reliable information versus a search
engine such as Google where it gives unlimited and vast information which does not meet his search purpose.
As Jack selects “Learn about Foosball” which will access information on official rules, glossary of terms, build your
own table, etc. It is a very comprehensive page with key points all relating to foosball. Since the subject matter
was very straightforward, this made it very easy to search for this material on the ipl2 site. Unlike other subject
matter which may not be very clear, this site might be difficult to find information.
Jack was able to research the important information to help him on his sports presentation. The sports rules,
glossary of terms and especially the sports foosball video added an enhancement to the Powerpoint presentation.
Jack uses the site on an average of about 2-3 times per week. But for this reports, Jack spent about 5 times per
week.
As far as prior training, Jack had no Ipl2 training. It was very easy to navigate around with no major type of
glitches. Jack would definitely recommend it to his classmates. Since Jack loves technology, he would like to assist
in helping other students access and navigate through the site.
Jack thought his class presentation was great! He did not receive his grade yet but he felt confident with the
information he presented because of the reliable research from the ipl2 site.
Background Information
Marsha Hahn
Name
68
Age
Occupation School Librarian and Media Specialist, K-12
Education
Location
Adjunct Reference Librarian, Gloucester
County College and Rowan University, NJ
Bachelors of Science in Education
Gloucester County, NJ
Goals:
•
•
Helping students find reliable, trust-worthy information for projects
Directing teachers/educators to teaching resources in a specific subject areas
Marsha Hahn is an adjunct reference librarian for Gloucester County College and Rowan
University in Gloucester County, NJ, approximately 20 minutes southeast of Philadelphia.
Marsha is also a life-long educator, working in K-12 schools and devoting the last 18 years of
her life to assisting high school students as a media specialist.
Marsha’s fairly comfortable working with computers. She spends approximately 20 minutes per
month checking sites listed within Internet Public Library 2 (IPL2). She accesses the site from a
computer at Gloucester County College, Rowan University, the high school in which she works,
or her personal computer at home. She’s never experienced any problems using the site.
Marsha’s decision to use either a search engine like Google or IPL2 depends on what she’s
looking for. If she knows exactly what she wants, she uses IPL2 for more complete and
authoritative results.
When Marsha’s helping students conduct research, she typically directs them to IPL2 because
she trusts the information provided through the site. She’s found that students, particularly
younger students, have trouble distinguishing between reliable and unreliable sites. She finds the
IPL2’s children website particularly useful in regard to the homework help section, access to
encyclopedias, and book lists.
Researching Amerigo Vespucci at the High School Library
Marsha is working at her computer at the reference desk in her high school’s library one day
when she is approached by a student. The student needs help looking for research information on
Amerigo Vespucci for a history class paper. Marsha directs the student, Joe, to a student
computer that accesses the library’s card catalog system and the internet. They sit down together
at the computer, and Joe tells Marsha that he doesn’t know where to start in his research process.
Marsha instructs Joe to type in the web address for the IPL2 website. At the search prompt on the
IPL2 home page, Joe enters “Amerigo Vespucci” and clicks “Search IPL2.” Joe becomes
discouraged when the search engine returns “no results found.” Marsha reassures him that there
is information out there – they just need to think about and try different search strategies for
finding it. Marsha directs Joe to the “Resources by Subject” box on the IPL2 home page. Joe
navigates to History under Arts & Humanities. There are 998 resources available, and Joe is
overwhelmed. Marsha suggests clicking on “History by Region” and then “North American
History.” Joe navigates to “United States History.” He finds 493 resources. Marsha says this is
MARSHA HAHN: REFERENCE LIBRARIAN
one area he can explore for links to websites that might have useful information. She then
suggests they try another area of the IPL2 website. When she instructs Joe to navigate back to the
home page, he becomes flustered and asks how he can remember the web page they just left.
He’s not sure he can remember how to go back to it. There’s no way to tag or mark locations on
IPL2, so Marsha shows Joe how to create a bookmark of the page by using the internet browser’s
tools.
After reassuring Joe that he will be able to get back to the search page, Marsha directs Joe back
to the IPL2 home page. She suggests he click on “For Kids.” Joe scoffs and asks her why she’d
tell him to look there when he’s not a kid. Marsha says that just because it says “For Kids”
doesn’t mean it won’t have valuable information that he can use. She instructs Joe to navigate to
the “History” link under the “Our World” heading on the page. Joe starts to scroll down the page
and sees a link for “Zoom Explorers.” He gets excited and clicks on the link and starts to explore
the web page. Marsha waits patiently for a minute or two and decides he’s on his way to
understanding how to search for information. She tells him she’s going to let me work a little
while on his own and return to the reference desk. Joe gets nervous at being left alone, but
Marsha reassures him that she’s just a few steps away if he has questions. She directs his
attention back to the search tools and leaves him to explore on his own once she sees he’s
become engrossed in the web page again.
PERSONA
Digital Libraries
Ipl2
C r e a t e d b y:
Heather Sherman
“To get students to read and listen to
books that is of interest to them”
-
GOALS
Ability to locate reference materials for her
elementary aged students
-
Ability to access library materials from her
laptop and iPhone, and school-issued iPads
-
Ability to assign electronic reading materials to
her students for their weekly assignments
-
Ability to search by topic and/or keyword
-
Ability to offer student homework assistance
-
Ability to access information in both English and
Spanish
Name
Danielle Sherman
Age
34
Gender
Female
Location
Fort Lauderdale, Florida
Occupation
5th Grade Language Arts Teacher
Education
PhD candidate at Florida Atlantic University
Devices
Toshiba Laptop, iPhone 4S
Background Information
Danielle has worked in a charter school,
teaching elementary-aged students and has
provided individual tutoring. She was
recruited to this position from Ohio six years
ago. The Florida teaching position required a
teacher who could write and read in both
Spanish and English.
As education technology has evolved,
blackboards with chalk have become
interactive Smartboards. Research
assignments are now conducted online and
textbooks are available both in print and on
e-readers. Danielle and her fellow teachers
are searching for digital library websites
where students can receive writing assistance
and conduct research assignments in an
environment that contains materials
appropriate for elementary aged students.
Danielle was among the first users of the
iPhone. She relishes any opportunity to
incorporate new technologies into her
classroom. Her students are now using the
iPad for the reading assignments.
Danielle has been using Storyplace and
International Children’s digital libraries.
Scenario
Digital Libraries
Danielle has started creating her lesson
plans for the next school year. First she
opens her previous year’s approved lesson
plans on her laptop. Danielle skims over
lesson plans and creates a list of areas that
she needs to research. She then takes this
list and researches them so that the current
lesson plans are engaging and based on the
English/Language Arts Common Core
Standards.
Danielle has to submit all her lesson plans
to her assistant principal to review to
ensure they meet the state and charter
school requirements. Frequently, Danielle
will search the internet for updated
information to enhance her lesson plans.
Once a week, she and the other Language
Arts teacher will plan lessons together. Her
charter school has implemented a
conservative firewall to block any websites
that contain inappropriate words or content.
However, if need be, Danielle can get sites
unblocked.
After browsing the lesson plan links,
Danielle searches for Spanish materials. As
an avid Google search engine user, Danielle
is used to searching websites by typing in a
key word or sentence. Danielle types in
Spanish Reading Materials into the search
window and clicks Search ipl2. Her results
are only focused on the words resource and
materials. The subject matter green text has
been replaced by URLs. Once again, Danielle
attempts to locate Spanish reading
materials. This time Danielle only enters
Spanish. At last, Danielle has discovered
Spanish reading materials websites with
information that she can incorporate into
her lesson plans.
One of Danielle’s colleagues has
recommended a new digital library site call
ipl.org. She will have the students use this
site during center time on their iPads so
they can improve their reading
comprehension and fluency through digital
books.
Danielle visits the ipl site to find sample
lesson plans and Spanish reading materials.
On the main page Danielle clicks on the For
Kids button. She scans the web page and
locates the resources for parents and
teacher link. Danielle clicks on several of
the resources in the Kids--Teachers and
Parents corner. Next she selects the Lesson
Plan link from the left hand blue vertical
bar. Until Danielle started clicking on the
links she was not sure of the differences
between the left hand blue menu and the
detail listing on the center white section.
I Certify that:
This paper is entirely my own work.
I have not quoted the words of any other
person from a printed source or a website
without indicating what has been quoted and
providing an appropriate citation. I have not
submitted this entry to satisfy the requirements
of any other course.
Heather Sherman
March 7, 2012
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Appendix D: Heuristic Evaluations
46
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Bertinelli Evaluation
Description of Problem
47
Heuristic
Number
Search result page displays same source multiple times,
with different descriptions.
8
Search strings with multiple words will sometimes yield
results with any and not all of those words.
7
Search feature relies on searching conventions the
average user may not be familiar with.
2,5
“Search Help” link clearly visible under the search bar.
10
“For Teens” section does not look consistent with
“Resources by Subject” and “For Kids” sections (not
organized by header, subheadings).
4
User must return to the main page to switch to a
different section.
3,6
Resources are not listed in a logical order
2
Resources are only easy to find on straightforward and
popular topics.
7
Severity
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Chow Evaluation
Description of Problem
48
Heuristic
Number
Main page: after typing in search terms, user is only
able to search all of ipl2, for kids, for teens, or
newspapers & magazines. Unable to specify to search
special collections created by ipl2 even though it is one
of the main icons on the main page.
7
Main page: there are ways to connect with ipl2 (i.e.
facebook, twitter), but Myspace link leads to a missing
page.
1
Middle school students who are not yet teenagers may
click on “For Kids” and feel as though it is catered more
to students younger than they are. Middle school
students may feel unable to find a place on the ipl2
website that caters to them.
2
There is no link to help the user. That is, if a user is
unfamiliar with the site, there is no “help” button.
10
When searching, there is no way to determine how the
results are organized – only a list of preferences is
provided. When searching for “solar system” 500 links
are provided ; unsure which is best.
2
The “For Kids” or “For Teens” the sections provided
are not organized in any way, it seems. One would
think that it would be listed alphabetically but it just
seems as though it is all just listed randomly.
2
Difficulty navigating back to previous pages.
2,7
Pages do not load properly onto Internet Explorer or
links do not work properly.
7
The partners listed on the bottom of the website do not
need to be listed on every single page.
8
Severity
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Ortanez Evaluation
Description of Problem
The IPL search engine can sometimes search for
information which does meet the criteria definition
and/or purpose. User may have to come up with
different searches. Depending on the search criteria, the
IPL does not come up with vast links like Google or
Bing, it comes up with links from education sites,
encyclopedia sites, government education sites, etc. In
other words, it narrows or limits your search to reliable
sites if search is worded in such a way in order to meet
the user's purpose.
Upon choosing icons, for example - "For Kids", there is
no user friendly button to go back to previous screen
unless you select the back arrow at the top of the screen
or after hover over the top left IPL picture which does
not indicate. Only after you hover all the pictures.
When typing a city name, the search selections come up
with more educational, governmental sites than the city
information first before any links come up with the city.
Searching dictionary first than city will provide
information on the city itself. And for some smaller
cities, the IPL only provided one link which may
indicate not so useful.
A user should be able to access accurate and efficient
information from IPL. It should give reliable
information since this is going to be used for educating
students. The IPL is fast, but how effective will the
information be if the user is not trained appropriately.
There should be some type of interactive tutorial.
When user clicks onto the links after selecting one of
the 5 main icons on the home page, it is a bit confusing
when searching for information the user has already in
mind. Design sometimes appears that it does not an easy
flow.
49
Heuristic
Number
2
3
2
6
and
10
10
The help librarian and frequently asked questions were
helpful for basic questions.
10
If search is not working well, maybe there should be
some type of alert box to inform user to search different
criteria.
10
Severity
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Romanoski Evaluation
Description of Problem/Comments
50
Heuristic
Number
The user has no problem understanding what the system
is doing when navigating and searching for Spanish
materials.
1
The user finds IPL2 straight-forward and easy to use
based on prior experience using something like Google.
2
The user may not find what she needs the first time
navigating the site, but there are other available options
for searching for information, such as the search box.
3
The user would find the site operates similarly to a
search engine like Google if that user is familiar with
that type of search engine.
4
If the user doesn't find what she's looking for while
navigating, she can try typing a phrase into the search
box. Depending on the results list, it may not have the
desire results. There was no feedback from the search
tool to tell the user that no results matched the search
box input.
When first navigating to the "Teachers" and "Parents"
corner, the user might not understand the difference
between the links on the left in the blue box and the
blue-highlighted links in the center of the page. While
the user can learn that she can click on them to retrieve
information, the differences aren't obvious.
The user can typically find what he or she is looking for
after trying several different search methods, such as
clicking on links or using the search box tool.
5
6
7
Severity
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Sherman Evaluation
Description of Problem
51
Heuristic
Number
User types in Search ipl2 and the result screen does not
include navigation to previous screen. The user has to
click on the browser back button to return to previous
screen. (Appendix A)
3
Search ipl2 box does not have clear button. When user
clicks on back browser to return to previous screen
search ipl2 box still contains text. User has to click in
ipl2 box to clear text. (Appendix B)
7
Mouse is enabled when user hovers over the current
page sub-category listing. When user clicks on subcategory to current page refreshes. (Appendix B)
5
On ipl2 search results user has to move mouse to left
side of screen or hit back button to return to previous
screen. Results contain a numerical listing instead of
number of pages. (Appendix C)
4
Ipl2 search box search drop-down does not contain list
to resource by subject or special collections. User has to
recall these options from the home page and click on the
home page to use them. (Appendix D)
6
When mouse is hovering over major category search
link font changes color from orange to blue and is
underlined. When mouse is hovering over minor
categories color changes from one shade of blue to
another and is underlined. When move is hovering over
graphic no color shading or underlying. (Appendix E)
User does not enter text into search ipl2 and clicks
search. Error message does not provide instructions on
how to correct the issue. Message should be clear for
the kid audience. Error message text is confusing with
its split into two sections.
(Appendix F)
In error message box user receive text need help? versus
search help? and both link to the same screen.
(Appendix F & G)
User enters Amerigo Vespucci term into search ipl box,
receives no results found message, clicks on back
browser, removes text from search box, clicks on search
4
2
Severity
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
3 major
4 catastrophe
0 no problem
1 cosmetic
2 minor
REPORT: IPL HEURISTIC EVALUATION
Sherman Evaluation
Description of Problem
ipl2, clicks on need help? and Amerigo Vespucci text
reappears into search box. Text is being held in memory
without a clear button. (Appendix F & G)
52
Heuristic
Number
Severity
3 major
4 catastrophe
115
Sample: Term Paper - EMI in Wireless Networks in Hospitals
This sample , the term project, was prepared for Drexel INFO
614, Distributed Computing and Networks. Details for this
course are as follows:
Description
This course provides an overview framework for the student to become familiar
with computer network technologies and transport protocols from a systems
engineering viewpoint. Topics include networking planning, design principles,
network protocols, internetworking, and distributed computing topics.
Course Objectives
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
Layered computer communications models and frameworks
The types of computer networks available and how they interoperate
Basic knowledge of network protocols with emphasis on Internet related
protocols
Routing, Bridging, and network address concepts
Network security and Internet application based technologies
Term Project
The term project was intended for an in-depth study of an applied distributed
computing problem or network technology. Topic choice was to be an appropriate
applied networking problem or technology (some suggestions are listed below). It
must have been applied to a specific real-world problem where possible.
For the content, the problem and requirements were to be stated clearly, practical
and complete designs to address the problem were to be described, and choices
were to be justified and explained. The work was to be convincing such that it
demonstrated tackling a real problem and have a real solution.
EMI IN HOSPITAL SETTINGS
1
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) in Wireless Networks in Hospitals
By
Lisa Romanoski
Drexel University
Author Note
This paper has been prepared in accordance
with the requirements of INFO 614.
EMI IN HOSPITAL SETTINGS
2
Certification
I certify that:
пѓј This paper is entirely my own work.
пѓј I have not quoted the words of any other person from a printed source or a website without
indicating what has been quoted and providing an appropriate citation.
пѓј I have not submitted this paper/project to satisfy the requirements of any other course.
Signature:
Lisa Romanoski
Date: June 7, 2012
EMI IN HOSPITAL SETTINGS
3
Introduction
Wireless local area networks (WLANS) are widely used in e-Health applications (e.g.
electronic medical records (EMRs), clinician notifier, etc.) to improve healthcare mobility and
service flexibility (Phunchongharn et al., 2010, p. 1247; Wang & Du, 2005, p. 335). However,
design of wireless communications for e-Health applications must consider electromagnetic
interference (EMI), which can affect EMI-sensitive medical devices and cause automatic
shutdown/restart, waveform distortion, and howling. These EMI effects, in turn, can have
serious, negative impacts on patient safety for those patients who rely on medical devices
(Phunchongharn et al., 2010, p. 1247; Wang & Du, 2005, p. 335) The goal of this paper is to
develop an understanding of what causes EMI and discuss solutions to overcome EMI issues in
WLANs.
This paper does not address a full-scale, site-specific setup of a WLAN in a hospital or
security measures needed to comply with federal and state regulations pertaining to patient data.
What is EMI and Why is it an Issue?
Electromagnetic (EM) radiation is comprised of alternating waves of electric and
magnetic fields, and is produced by such things as television, radio, cellular, and other
broadcasting equipment (PDAmd.com, 2010). EMI is a naturally occurring phenomena that
results when the electromagnetic field of one device disrupts, impedes or degrades the
electromagnetic field of another device by coming into proximity with it (Webopedia.com,
2012). Electronic devices are susceptible to EMI because electromagnetic fields are a byproduct
of passing electricity through a wire (Webopedia.com, 2012). According to Williams (1995),
“the exposure, frequency, location, orientation, and design of a device all influence whether it
will experience EMI.” Furthermore, Witters (2009) notes that “the strength of the EM field at
EMI IN HOSPITAL SETTINGS
any given distance from the source of the radiated signal (transmitter) is directly proportional to
the radiated power of the transmitter and inversely proportional to the distance.”
Incidents of EMI with medical equipment has been an issue since approximately 1979, at
which time the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) began to receive reports of suspected
incidents, including but not limited to (Williams, 1995):
п‚· Pacemaker failure during an ambulance ride while the two-way radio
was in use.
п‚· Pulse rate and oxygen level display on a pulse oximeter machine
attached to a dead body, occurring when a telemetry receiver that was
part of the system was placed too close to the body.
 Instead of identifying a baby’s heartbeat, a fetal heartbeat detector
played local radio and CB broadcasts.
п‚· Interference with electric wheelchair circuits, including an instance
where a man in a powered wheelchair, several miles from a radio tower
and three blocks from a busy road where mobile radios were likely in
use, was seriously injured when his chair rode off a cliff at high speed.
Incidents such as these led the FDA to produce strict shielding requirements for medical
equipment. Shielding can be applied to electrostatic discharge, EMI, radio frequency interference
(RFI), and microwave absorption (Sealscience.com, 2012):
п‚· Electrostatic discharge (ESD) shielding: the process of limiting
electric current that flows when an excess of electric charge, stored on
an electrically insulated object, finds a path to an object at a different
electrical potential (such as ground) by separating them with a barrier
made of a lightly conductive material. Static dissipative materials have
electrical resistance between insulative and conductive materials. There
can be electron flow across or through the dissipative material, but it is
controlled by the surface resistance or volume resistance of the
material.
4
EMI IN HOSPITAL SETTINGS
Typical materials for ESD shielding in the semiconductor and medical
device industries include carbon-filled silicone and polyurethane blends
that shield highly sensitive electronic circuitry.
п‚· Electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding: the process of blocking
the induction of electromagnetic radiation, which is emitted by
electrical circuits carrying rapidly changing signals, as a by-product of
their normal operation to other circuits which causes unwanted signals
(interference or noise). This is achieved by separating the circuits with
a barrier made of conductive material.
п‚· Radio frequency interference (RFI) shielding: the process blocking
radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation from one circuit to another by
separating them with a barrier made of conductive material. This is
achieved by separating the circuits with a barrier made of conductive
material.
Typical solutions for EMI/RFI shielding in the aerospace and medical
device industries include gaskets and custom molded seals made from
highly conductive elastomers that bridge uneven seams in electronic
packaging. Anything other than a 100% metal to metal contact can
provide gaps that allow interference to degrade systematic performance.
п‚· Microwave absorption: the process of absorbing microwave/radar
energy at discrete and broadband frequencies by converting the
microwave/radar energy into heat. This is achieved by magnetizing an
elastomeric material by filling it with a magnetic alloy such as carbonyl
iron or ferrite.
Microwave absorbing materials/ radar absorbing materials (RAM) are
frequently used in the military industry for radar cross-section (RCS)
5
EMI IN HOSPITAL SETTINGS
6
reduction. Seals designed from microwave absorbing elastomers are
effective in reducing both EMI and RCS.
According to Witters (2009), the key to addressing EMI is the recognition that it involves
not only the device itself but also the environment in which it is used, and anything that may
come into that environment. More than anything else, the concern with EMI must be viewed as a
systems problem requiring a systems approach. In this case the solution requires the involvement
of the device industry, the EM source industry (e.g., power industry, telecommunications
industry), and the clinical user and patient. The public must also play a part in the overall
approach to recognizing and dealing with EMI (Witters, 2009).
The next section describes regulatory oversight of medical devices.
Regulating Agencies
In the U.S., the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) influence medical device regulation (Fish & Richardson, 2012, p. 2)1. A
short discussion of these agencies is included here because their regulations influence safety and
EMI outcomes in hospitals.
Both FCC certification and FDA authorization are required prior to medical device
marketing in the U.S. (Fish & Richardson, 2012, p. 2). Every medical device that uses radio
technology falls within the FCC’s authority to manage the electromagnetic spectrum. Under FCC
rules, wireless devices must be tested for technical standards conformance and authorized before
they may be imported, marketed or operated in the U.S. (p.3). The FCC standards specify
permissible frequencies, power levels, duty cycle, band sharing and frequency stability
requirements, along with detailed test procedures for measuring these parameters (p. 5).
1
The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) are also influential in regard to medical devices, but only
in terms of payment and marketability (Fish & Richardson, 2012, p. 7). As such, CMS is not discussed in this
paper.
EMI IN HOSPITAL SETTINGS
7
The FDA regulates the marketing of all medical devices sold or imported in the U.S.
(Fish & Richardson, 2012, p. 5). Unlike the FCC which focuses on the interference potential of
radio frequency devices, the FDA’s role is to ensure that such devices are safe and effective for
patient use (p. 5). The range of products that are classified and regulated as “medical devices” is
broad and can include medical information networks, cell phones programmed to remind users to
take pills, and conventional devices fitted with radio communication features (p. 5).
The next section describes medical devices in greater detail and includes frequency
operating ranges.
Medical Devices
As the purpose of this paper is to look at network solutions for overcoming EMI in
hospitals, it may be prudent to develop an understanding of what sort of devices can cause or be
influenced by EMI, beginning with medical devices. Medical devices may be implanted or worn
on the body and serve the purpose of controlling bodily functions and/or measuring
physiological parameters (Fish & Richardson, 2012, p. 1). According to Fish & Richardson
(2012), p. 1):
п‚· Implanted devices can control heart rhythms, monitor hypertension,
provide functional electrical stimulation of nerves, operate as glaucoma
sensors and monitor bladder and cranial pressure, and
п‚· External devices monitor vital signs, assist the movement of artificial
limbs and function as miniature “base stations” for the collection and
transmission of various physiological parameters.
The days of patients being tethered to one spot are gone (Fish & Richardson, 2012, p. 1).
Device design has evolved dramatically since the occurrence of the previously mentioned EMI
incidents involving medical devices (Fish & Richardson, 2012, p. 1). Wireless medical devices
EMI IN HOSPITAL SETTINGS
8
can communicate with nearby receivers connected to landline networks, cellular systems, or
broadband facilities that access the Internet (p. 1). The benefits of this are far-reaching, including
a more comfortable environment for the patient, the creation of a safer workplace for medical
professionals, the ability to remotely monitor patients on a real time basis, and the ability to
provide preventative and managed care (p. 1-2).
Generally, wireless medical devices fall into one of two informal FCC categories: short
or long range (Fish & Richardson, 2012, p. 4). Short range technologies transmit data from the
patient to a local receiver or monitor, which may stand alone or connect to a central monitoring
station. Long range technologies generally transmit patient data directly to a remote monitoring
location (p. 4).
Figure 1 shows the Industrial, Scientific, and Medical Bands in which certain devices
may operate. Frequency data is presented here because managers of WLAN operations,
particularly those that use radio signals, need to be
cognizant of the various devices in use and ensure that
they operate in way such that they can co-exist in the
same area with each other with minimal interference
with each other (Harte, 2004).
802.11 WLAN radio systems that use radio
channels operate in the unlicensed frequency bands,
which can be used by anyone or any product provided
the transmission conforms to transmission
characteristics (frequency, power, and channel control)
defined by the appropriate regulatory agency, such as
Figure 7. ISM Bands (Encyclopedia2.
hefreedictionary.com, 2012).
EMI IN HOSPITAL SETTINGS
9
those defined by the FCC for medical devices (Harte, 2004). 802.11 WLAN systems may
operate in 2.4 GHz or 5.7 GHz, , shown in Figure 1 (Harte, 2004). The 2.4 GHz band has 83.5
MHz of bandwidth, and the 5.7 GHz band is actually divided into three 100 MHz frequency
bands.
Additional frequency data for current medical telemetry is provided in Table 1.
Additional short range technologies for patient monitoring are included in Table 2.
Table 3. Current Medical Telemetry Band (Fish & Richardson, 2012, p. A17)
Standard
Frequency
Date Rate
Range Description
Inductive Coupling Devices
< 1 MHz
1-30 kpbs
<1m
Wireless Medical Telemetry
(WMTS)
608-614 MHz
Medical Device
Radiocommunication
Service (formerly “MICS”)
> 250 kbps 30-60 m Communicates data
from body sensors to
1395-1400 MHz
remote monitoring
1427-1429.5 MHz
locations
401-406 MHz
250 kbps
802.11 a Wi-Fi
5 GHz
54 Mbps
802.11 b Wi-Fi
2.4 GHz
11 Mbps
802.11 g Wi-Fi
2.4 GHz
54 Mbps
802.11 n Wi-Fi
2.4/5 GHz
248 Mbps
2.4 GHz
3 Mbps
100 m
868, 915 MHz, 2.4
GHz
40 kbps
250 kbps
75 m
2.5 GHz
70 Mbps
(fixed)
802.15.1 Bluetooth Class I
802.15.4 (Zigbee)
World Interoperability for
Microwave Access
Used to control or
monitor cardio activity
2-10 m Allocated in 1999 for
licensed
communication
between body implants
and a nearby controller,
the FCC added more
frequencies to this
service in 2009 for use
by body-worn
monitoring devices
120 m Used with cell phones,
hand held devices and
140 m personal computers,
140 m but can also be used for
implanted or body250 m worn medical devices
Several Provides wireless
km
transmission using a
EMI IN HOSPITAL SETTINGS
Standard
10
Frequency
Date Rate
(WiMAX)
Range Description
40 Mbps
(mobile)
variety of transmission
modes, from point-tomultipoint links to
portable and fully
mobile Internet access.
The technology
provides up to 70 Mbps
broadband at distances
over several
kilometers.
Table 4. Short Range Patient Monitoring Technologies (Fish & Richardson, 2012, p. 4)
Technology
Operational and
Frequency Details
Description
Ultra-Wideband
Very low power in almost any Used in medical telemetry and
region of the spectrum at
imaging applications.
distances up to a few feet
Medical Micropower
Networks
413-457 MHz band at
distances up to a few feet.
Implanted microstimulator
devices that might lead to the
creation of an artificial nervous
system that could restore
mobility to paralyzed limbs.
Medical Body Area
Networks
2360-2400 MHz band at
distances up to a few feet
A wireless personal area
network (“PAN”) of multiple
body sensors to monitor
or control patient functions
Electromagnetic Compatibility Standard
As mentioned in the previous section, there are numerous standards that apply to wireless
medical devices. Of particular note are IEC 60601-1 and 61000-4, which address
electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) (Phunchongharn et al., 2010, p.1248). EMC is the opposite
of EMI: it means that the device is compatible with (i.e., no interference caused by) its EM
EMI IN HOSPITAL SETTINGS
11
environment, and it does not emit levels of EM energy that cause EMI in other devices in the
vicinity (Witters, 2009). IEC 60601-1 specifies general requirements for medical equipment
safety, while IEC 61000-4 recommends EMC testing and measurement techniques
(Phunchongharn et al., 2010, p. 1248). IEC 60601-1-2 defines the immunity standard level,
which is the maximum EM disturbance level in which the device can operate without
performance degradation, and the compliance level, or the EM disturbance level, which is below
or equal to the immunity level (p. 1248).
IEC 60601-1-2 specifies that non-life-supporting devices should be able to tolerate the
EM field of at least 3 V/m, while life-supporting devices should be able to tolerate the maximum
EM field of 3 V/m caused by RF transmission under 80-800 MHz and 10 V/m caused by RF
transmission from 800 MHz to 2.5 GHz (Phunchongharn et al., 2010, p. 1248). Non-lifesupporting medical devices include things such as blood pressure monitors and infusion pumps,
whereas life-supporting devices include things such as defibrillators (Phunchongharn et al., 2010,
p. 1248).
To reduce EM fields to those passive medical devices, the wireless transmitter should
decrease the transmit power or increase the separation distance between itself and the medical
device (Phunchongharn et al., 2010, p. 1248).
Other EMI Sources
As shown previously in Figure 1, ISM Bands, WLANs are not the only radio devices
operating in the unlicensed frequency band (Harte, 2004). Some non-communication electronic
devices can leak radio signals in the unlicensed band such as microwave ovens, computers, and
mobile telephones. These devices cause interference in a variety of ways, either temporarily (e.g.
microwave oven) or continuously (wireless video security camera) (Harte, 2004).
EMI IN HOSPITAL SETTINGS
12
Other sources known to cause interference issues include (Dyrda & Khairy, 2008, p. 824;
Harte, 2004) :
п‚·
High-voltage lines
п‚·
Security systems
п‚·
Radio and television towers
п‚·
Intercom systems
п‚·
Transformers
п‚·
Cordless telephones
п‚·
Residential power generators
п‚·
Cell phones
Cell phones do emit EMI and can cause interference with medical devices (IEEE, 2008,
p. 38). Usage policies tend to vary by hospital (Fontaine, 2004). A solution to the potential
interference problem is to use a distributed in-building cellular repeater or distributed antenna
system (DAS) (Fontaine, 2004). According to Laura Fontaine, a spectrum expert, “most cell
phones have power control where the transmit power adjusts depending upon the strength of the
signal received from the base station. Signal propagation through the building walls tends to
weaken the base station signal, causing the cell phone to operate at higher power since it thinks
the base station is farther away. A DAS effectively brings the cellular base station signal inside
the building and better distributes it. By using a DAS, the phones will typically operate at a
lower power, thus reducing the EMI potential” (2004).
With EMI sources identified, subsequent sections explore how some of these sources
function within a hospital environment. WLAN systems and their operations are discussed,
followed by a review of an EMI-aware access scheme.
WLAN System
As mentioned previously, WLANs are becoming more commonplace in hospitals that use
various e-Health applications (Phunchongharn et al., 2010, p. 1247; Wang & Du, 2005, p. 335).
WLANs provide wireless network communication over short distances using radio or infrared
EMI IN HOSPITAL SETTINGS
signals instead of traditional network cabling (http://bmisigcseit.wikispaces.com, 2012). This
section explores the setup of a WLAN that uses radio signals and accommodates e-Health
applications, beginning with a description of components followed by a discussion on operations
and access.
WLAN systems are typically composed of the following devices (Harte, 2004):
Inventory system:
п‚·
Gathers information about all electronic medical devices in the hospital (Phunchongharn et
al., 2010, p. 1247; Airtightnetworks.com, 2012):
пЃ¶
On/off status
пЃ¶
Location
пЃ¶
Signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR) thresholds
Stations:
п‚·
Access Points
пЃ¶
Are radio access transceivers (combined transmitter and receiver)
пЃ¶
Are considered base stations and connect wireless data devices to a LAN system
пЃ¶
Convert and control the sending of data packets to other devices or networks
пЃ¶
Perform data transfer functions including bridging (linking networks), retransmitting
(repeating), distributing (hubs), directing packets (switching or routing), or adapt formats
for other types of networks (gateways)
п‚·
пЃ¶
Can be mounted on walls, ceilings, and to other objects
пЃ¶
Have a wired Ethernet data connector (8 pin RJ-45) and a power supply input
Clients:
пЃ¶
Wireless data devices that include wireless network interface card (NIC) adapters and
integrated radio modules (laptops, personal digital assistants (PDAs), IP phones and other
smartphones, or fixed devices such as desktops and workstations
пЃ¶
May be considered as either low- or high-priority in terms of access
пЃ¶
Communicate with the RAC over wireless links
пЃ¶
Access one channel at a time by way of a single, dual-channel radio transceiver
пЃ¶
Transmit/receive data through the RAC by adaptively tuning the transmit power
13
EMI IN HOSPITAL SETTINGS
пЃ¶
14
Are associated, or registered, with a WLAN system (i.e., a specific access point) to allow
information transmission/receipt
A radio access controller (RAC):
п‚·
Connected to the inventory system with wired infrastructure
п‚·
Equipped with two radio transceivers, one for common channel control and another for data,
which can be accessed concurrently
п‚·
Controls and manages the frequency system using inventory system information
п‚·
Defines safe transmission parameters for avoiding harmful EMI
п‚·
Performs channel allocation and controls wireless access
Interconnection network:
п‚·
The connection of access nodes through wire or radio redistribution
Servers:
п‚·
Provide resources to other computers and devices on a network
п‚·
Include network access control (such as RADIUS), network management, and policy
(bandwidth control) servers
WLAN Operations
WLANs operate by coordinating radio channel access and data packet transmissions
between wireless access devices (Harte, 2004). Address and control information allows data
packets to reach their destination (Harte, 2004). Packets may be sent directly between units
(independent mode) or they may travel through a backbone network (distributed mode) (Harte,
2004). Association of devices with APs keeps track of where devices are operating and the
addresses assigned to reach them (Harte, 2004).
Addressing
Addressing in a WLAN system consists of addresses of devices that are part of the
WLAN system (Harte, 2004). These are called medium access control (MAC) addresses. Each
EMI IN HOSPITAL SETTINGS
device in the WLAN system including stations, APs, and routers has its own unique 48 bit
medium access control (MAC) address (also known as a link address) (Harte, 2004). Each data
packet that is transmitted in the wireless LAN contains multiple MAC addresses, including the
source address (SA), destination address (DA), transmitter address (TA), and receiver address
(RA) (Harte, 2004).
During the installation process for most wireless networks, the network name or Service
Set Identity (SSID) and a channel number needs to be entered for an AP (Harte, 2004, Kurose
and Ross, 2010, p. 539). The SSID is a 32-character unique identifier attached to the header of
packets sent over a WLAN can differentiate one WLAN from another (Harte, 2004). All APs
that are part of a specific WLAN must use the same SSID (Harte, 2004). A device cannot join a
WLAN unless it can provide the unique SSID assigned to that system (Harte, 2004).
Association
Association allows users to move seamlessly (roaming) from one AP coverage area to
another with no loss in connectivity (Harte, 2004). When a WLAN station first senses an access
point, it associates with the AP, or creates a virtual wire between itself and the AP (Harte, 2004;
Kurose and Ross, 2010, p. 539). When a station leaves an AP or wants to transfer to a new AP
because the signal quality is better, it disassociates with the AP, releasing resources and allowing
the system to hold or reroute packets to the new AP that the station associates with next (Harte,
2004).
Quality of Service
As mentioned previously, WLANs are based on the IEEE 802.11 standard. Most current
implementations use the Distributed Coordination Function (DCF) at the Medium Access
Control (MAC) layer (Soomro and Cavalcanti, 2007, p. 117). DCF is a random access
15
EMI IN HOSPITAL SETTINGS
mechanism in which a wireless station senses the channel before transmitting a packet and, in the
case of overlapping transmissions, retries transmissions after randomly selected backoff periods
(p. 117). Since DCF doesn’t support quality of service (QoS), an 802.11e extension to 802.11
was developed to provide different service levels for applications with different throughput and
delay requirements (p. 117). Two mechanisms of QoS support are defined, including Enhanced
Distributed Channel Access (EDCA) and Hybrid coordination function Controlled Channel
Access (HCCA).
In EDCA, four access categories (voice, video, best-effort, and background traffic)
contend for a channel in a distributed manner with different probabilities or priorities of access
(Soomro and Cavalcanti, 2007, p. 117). The access priorities are determined by setting different
MAC layer parameters for each category (p. 118). In HCCA, QoS is provide in a centralized
manner by a hybrid coordinator (HC), co-located with an AP and determines flow admittance
based on application requirements (p. 118). The difference between the two mechanisms is that
HCCA guarantees QoS whereas EDCA provides differentiation in a probabilistic manner (p.
118).
The next section discusses access in greater detail. The access scheme is based on the
802.11 e standard (Phunchongharn et al., 2010, p. 1248).
Access
For an e-Health application situation, access could work in the following manner
according to a scheme presented by Phunchongharn et al. (2010):
1. Connection: Devices can connect to the RAC in the common control
channel by using a time-slotted RTS-CTS-based channel access
mechanism (Phunchongharn et al., 2010, p. 1248). RTS and CTS,
Request to Send (RTS) and Clear to Send (CTS) are control frames
16
EMI IN HOSPITAL SETTINGS
that are used to avoid collisions and the hidden terminal problem,
caused by an obstruction that prevents devices from sensing one
another’s transmissions (Harte, 2004; Kurose and Ross, 2010, p. 545).
2. Carrier Sensing: Prior to data transmission, devices can perform
carrier sensing to avoid collisions, which is based on the contentionbased operation DCF, mentioned previously. With carrier sense
multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CD), stations sense
the channel during a Distributed Inter-frame Space (DFIS) before
transmitting and “backs off” (refrains) from transmitting when the
channel is busy (Phunchongharn et al., 2010, p. 1248; Kurose and
Ross, 2010, p. 541).
3. Common Control Broadcasting: Each device has a maximum transmit
power, P, for transmitting either RTS or CTS that takes into account
EMI (Phunchongharn et al., 2010, p. 1249) 2. Since status and
locations are dynamic, the RAC computes and broadcasts the transmit
power as changes occur (p. 1250). Each user waits until a channel is
sensed idle before transmitting an RTS message or data packet (p.
1250). If the RAC needs to increase the transmit power, it can
broadcast a new message with information after a short interframe
space (SIFS) (p. 1248). Since SIFS is shorter than DIFS, all devices
can detect the broadcasting and stop their transmissions so that devices
can synchronize to the RAC, which can always capture the change in a
hospital environment (p. 1250).
4. Uplink Requests: After common control channel broadcasting, a user
can transmit its requests by using an EMI-aware RTS-CTS protocol on
the control channel (Phunchongharn et al., 2010, p. 1250). A device
first transmits an RTS message to the RAC by using P (p. 1250). If a
high-priority device suffers a collision, it will wait for a random time
2
The reader is referred to Phunchongharn et al. (2010) for the transmit power formula.
17
EMI IN HOSPITAL SETTINGS
based on an exponential backoff window (p. 1250). Information about
the user type is included in the request message. Once the RTS
message is received by the RAC, it calculates the upper bound of
transmit power for the user on the data channel in the same way as P
(p. 1250). If the RAC cannot find a feasible transmit power which
meets the EMI constraints on the device and satisfies the minimum
QoS requirements of the device, the data transmission request is
dropped and a negative CTS message is transmitted to the device/user
(p. 1251). Otherwise, the RAC will transmit a CTS message with the
maximum allowable transmit power (p. 1248). The device/user can
adaptively tune its transmit power on the data channel accordingly.
Once the CTS message is successfully received by the user, the user
will transmit an acknowledge (ACK) message to the RAC within the
same time slot, which is composed of the CTS transmission period and
the ACK transmission period (p. 1250). If the RAC does not receive
the ACK message at the end of the time slot, it will repeat the CTS
transmission using automatic repeat request (ARQ) protocol in the
next time slot (p. 1251).
5. Downlink Requests: For downlink requests, the RAC retrieves
device/user location and calculates the feasible transmit power to
avoid EMI (Phunchongharn et al., 2010, p. 1248). If feasible transmit
power is not determined, the transmission request is dropped with
probabilities Pd1EMI and Pd2EMI for high- and low-priority users,
respectively3 (p. 1251). To avoid congestion, the downlink
transmission request can also be dropped with probabilities Pd1cong and
Pd2cong, respectively.
3
The reader is referred to Phunchongharn et al. (2010) for the probability equations.
18
EMI IN HOSPITAL SETTINGS
If the transmit request is granted, the RAC will transmit an RTS
message along with the feasible transmit power on the control channel
to the user after an SIFS to avoid collision with RTS messages from
other users (p. 1251). Upon receiving the RTS message, the
device/user will respond with a CTS message after an SFIS period (p.
1251). In the same time slot of the CTS transmission, the RAC will
immediately transmit an ACK message to the user. An ARQ
mechanism is also used to recover from erroneous transmissions (p.
1251).
In practice, RTS and CTS transmission lengths are small,
approximately 18 ms each, while the duration of data transmissions of
high-priority and low-priority devices/users are several hundred
milliseconds (e.g., 250 ms for high-priority and 810 ms for lowpriority) (p. 1251). As such, the overhead caused by the RTS/CTS
protocol is negligible.
6. Prioritized Queue Management and Data Transmission: Upon
receiving the CTS message for uplink transmission or RTS message
for downlink transmission, the device/user will switch its radio from
the control to the data channel (Phunchongharn et al., 2010, p. 1251).
The user will wait in the data channel until the RAC transmits a
message to allow the user to transmit/receive data when the channel is
available (p. 1251). The duration of a time slot is assumed to be fixed
during which one packet can be transmitted. The time slot is composed
of the data transmission period and the ACK transmission period (p.
1251).
Two finite-length queues at the RAC are used to store transmission
requests (p. 1251). If they are full, the RAC will transmit a negative
CTS message to the user (p. 1251). The user will wait and retransmit
the request (p. 1251). High-priority users are always allowed to
19
EMI IN HOSPITAL SETTINGS
20
transmit if there is any request in the transmission queue (p. 1251).
Low-priority users have to wait in the queue until the high-priority
queue is empty (p. 1251).
System Analysis
The previously discussed access scheme was developed by Phunchongharn et al. (2010),
who presented a rather sophisticated model that was tested with several simulations in
MATLAB. Attempting to reproduce it is beyond the scope of this paper, but a discussion on
methods and results is included herein.
Phunchongharn et al. (2010) analyzed their proposed system with a queuing analysis and
development of a discrete-time queuing model (p. 1251). For queuing, the authors assume two
servers (one for the control channel and a second for the data channel), two orbits, and two
buffers (for high- and low-priority users) (p. 1251). A scenario is considered in which an RTS
request arrives at the server in the control channel with arrival probabilities for high- and lowpriority users (p. 1252). When a collision occurs, users go to the orbits and will try retransmitting
with respective probabilities (p. 1252).
The authors next use a Discrete-time Markov Chain Model to that is used to model the
queuing behavior. Markov-chains are certain discrete space stochastic processes in which it is
assumed that the future evolution of a process is dependent only on the state of the process at
time n, and is independent of the past evolution of the process (Zukerman, 2000, p. 67).
According to Zukerman (2000), the “amenability” of the model makes it attractive for use in
various types of analyses, including modeling of queuing and telecommunications networks and
systems (p. 67). Transitions from one state to another in the model are assumed by
Phunchongharn et al. (2010) to be a collision, a successful RTS at the RAC on the control
EMI IN HOSPITAL SETTINGS
21
channel, a CTS transmission from the RAC on the control channel, and a user finishing its
transmission on the data channel (p. 1252).
Next, the authors derive two performance metrics: the average transmission delay of
high-priority users М… ) and the loss probability of low-priority users ( ). The readers is referred
to Phunchongharn et al. (2010) for the equations (p. 1252-3; 1256-8). The authors then develop
an optimization scheme for the blocking probabilities Pd1 and Pd2 by using performance measures
from the queuing analysis. The goal is to select optimal blocking probabilities that allow for
maximum system throughput while concurrently satisfying QoS requirements (p. 1253). System
parameters used in the two-stage optimization include those shown in Table 3.
Table 5. System Parameters for an EMI-Aware Wireless Access Scheme
(Phunchongharn et al., 2010, p. 1253)
Parameter
Description
Arrival priorities of high- and low-priority users, respectively
Backoff window sizes
Maximum backoff stage for low-priority users
Probability of user finishing a transmission; pertains to variable size of medical
files for e-Health applications
Total number of high- and low-priority users
The optimization scheme developed by the authors is listed in Table 4.
Table 6. Two-stage Optimization (Phunchongharn et al., 2010, p. 1253)
Minimize
(1)
М…
Subject to
)
)
(2)
Minimize
(3)
)
Subject to
)
and
)
)
(4)
are the QoS requirements for e-Health applications in terms of the
average transmission delay of high-priority users and the loss probability of low-priority users
EMI IN HOSPITAL SETTINGS
(Phunchongharn et al., 2010, p. 1253). In the first stage, an optimal Pd1 is selected to maximize
the throughput of high-priority users while the average transmission delay of the users is satisfied
in equations 1 and 2 in Table 4. In the second stage, an optimal Pd2 is selected to maximize the
throughput of low-priority users while maintaining the loss probability of low-priority users as
shown in equation 4 in Table 4. The optimal Pd1 obtained in the first stage is used to compute the
loss probability of low-priority users as shown in equation 4 in Table 4.
Scenario
In their performance evaluation, Phunchongharn et al. (2010) considered clinician notifier
and EMR e-Health applications (p. 1253). A clinician notifier application is used by staff to
retrieve real-time physiological signals of patients when an alarm occurs (p. 1253). EMR
applications are used by staff to add, retrieve, and update medical data (p. 1253). In the authors’
scenario, they considered one life-supporting device (a defibrillator), four non-life-supporting
devices (two electrocardiogram (ECG) monitors and two blood pressure monitors), one active
medical receiver, and five active medical transmitters (p. 1253). It is assumed that the five active
medical transmitters transmit ECG signals to the active medical receiver in a round-robin manner
(p. 1253). Various assumptions were developed as to number of times operated and duration of
operation. For example, it was assumed that the clinician notifier applications were run 40 times
an hour and used to retrieve real-time ECG signals of patients. The sampling rate for clinician
notifier was 250 Hz with 8-bit resolution (p. 1254). For the EMR, data size ranges were assumed
to range from 10 to100 kB, and access was assumed to occur 60 times in an hour (p. 1254).
22
EMI IN HOSPITAL SETTINGS
23
Results
To assess their evaluation, Phunchongharn et al. (2010) considered the performance
measures of interference probability and outage probability (p. 1254). The interference
probability is the probability of causing EMI to medical devices when the transmit power is
higher than an acceptable level (p. 1254). The outage probability is the probability that the
receive signal strength at the RAC is less than -94 dBm (p. 1254).
Model results reveal that the authors’ proposed protocol does not cause EMI, whereas the
traditional CSMA/CA protocol does (Phunchongharn et al., 2010, p. 1254). Additional findings
include (p. 1254-5):
п‚·
Higher transmit power is likely to result in greater probability for
interference.
п‚·
Outage probability was found to be greater due to transmit power
limits.
п‚·
Transmission duration of high-priority users decreases as the average
transmission delay of high-priority users М… decreases .
п‚·
Average transmission duration of low-priority users was found to have
no influence on high-priority user performance.
п‚·
Chance for collisions was found to increase with an increase in the
number of users.
п‚·
Average transmission delay М… and number of high-priority users in
the queue decreases when blocking probability Pd1 increases .
п‚·
Loss probability of low-priority users ( ) decreases as
increases
(p. 1255).
Conclusion
WLAN systems provide the opportunity to improve mobility and service flexibility in
healthcare services by making real-time data available to busy clinicians operating in a fast-
EMI IN HOSPITAL SETTINGS
paced, dynamic setting (Phunchongharn et al., 2010, p. 1247; Wang & Du, 2005, p. 335; Soomro
& Cavalcanti, 2007, p. 114). While the advantages of “anytime, anywhere” health information
access are clear, EMI continues to be problematic in regard to numerous devices operating in
environments such as hospitals. As mentioned previously, the key to addressing EMI is the
recognition that it involves not only the device itself but also the environment in which it is used,
and anything that may come into that environment (Witters, 2009). More than anything else, the
concern with EMI must be viewed as a systems problem requiring a systems approach (Witters,
2009, Wang & Du, 2005, p. 347; Bruns & Dimantha, 2006, p. 42).
This paper looked at a QoS provisioning approach that takes into account power
transmission in order to minimize EMI affects to sensitive medical equipment. Authors
Phunchongharn et al. (2010) successfully demonstrated that such provisioning is possible
depending on the WLAN access scheme. While each healthcare setting is different, the approach
present herein provides a tool network managers can apply in concert with Witters’ systems
approach to minimize EMI.
24
EMI IN HOSPITAL SETTINGS
25
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146
Sample: Final Paper - Significant Influential Factors Affecting Health
Information Technology Diffusion and Infusion
This sample , the term project, was prepared for Drexel INFO
731, Organizational and Social Issues in Healthcare
Informatics. Details for this course are as follows:
Description
This course provides an overview of sociotechnical issues in healthcare informatics,
focusing on patient care and biomedical research settings. It looks at the human,
social, and technological aspects of healthcare IT and focuses on the role of
information professionals in applied healthcare IT settings.
Course Objectives
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
Discuss the term "sociotechnical" and give examples of its effect on health IT
Describe the basic structure of healthcare organizations and how organizational
context of affects IT use
Project the implications of IT for future health care delivery and research
Compare the design, implementation, and system life-cycle of Health IT to
similar projects in other sectors
Describe how typical clinician attitudes may affect IT applications
Through analysis of selected case examples, show how principles of change
management can be applied in health care organizations.
Select a healthcare leadership model to apply it to IT management.
Identify initiatives in health IT at the multi-organizational, regional, state and
national levels and describe their interactions.
In summary, students should be able to understand and discuss why clinical IT
projects are "incredibly complex social endeavors in unforgiving clinical
environments that happen to involve computers, as opposed to computer
projects that happen to involve doctors."
Final Paper
The goal of the final paper was to author a paper that demonstrates and enhances a
student’s understanding of a topic of current interest in organizational issues in
health informatics.
SIGNIFICANT FACTORS: HIT DIFFUSION/INFUSION
Significant Influential Factors Affecting Health
Information Technology Diffusion and Infusion
By
Lisa Romanoski
Drexel University
Author Note
This paper has been prepared in accordance
with the requirements of INFO731.
1
SIGNIFICANT FACTORS: HIT DIFFUSION/INFUSION
Certification
I certify that:
пѓј This paper is entirely my own work.
пѓј I have not quoted the words of any other person from a printed source or a website without indicating what has
been quoted and providing an appropriate citation.
пѓј I have not submitted this paper/project to satisfy the requirements of any other course.
Signature:
Lisa Romanoski
Date: June 8, 2012
2
SIGNIFICANT FACTORS: HIT DIFFUSION/INFUSION
Abstract
Understanding significant factors affecting health information technology (HIT) diffusion and infusion is
important because getting a new innovation adopted is difficult regardless of the presence of advantages or
disadvantages. Factors can influence implementation decisions and strategies and paint a picture of what to expect
pre- and post-decision. This paper focuses on significant external and internal factors. Findings reveal that
significant influential external factors include healthcare market characteristics (federal mandates, payment policies,
and delivery system), competition, and product quality and effectiveness. Significant influential internal factors
include size, financial and staffing resources, culture, compatibility/fit, people, communication pathways and
structures, relationships, decision-making, and support mechanisms. Identifying and understanding such factors can
provide insight to organizational decision-making, reasons why some innovations are more highly sought than
others, and the likelihood for business practice integration success or failure. Caution is recommended for
comparing and then hypothesizing from studies that use different methodologies.
Introduction
Understanding significant factors affecting health information technology (HIT) diffusion and infusion is
important because getting a new innovation adopted is difficult regardless of the presence of advantages or
disadvantages (Rogers, 2003, p.1). Investigations into diffusion and infusion tend to arise from the need to speed up
the process (p. 1). Identifying significant factors can influence implementation decisions and strategies and paint a
picture of what to expect pre- and post-decision (Ash, 1997, p. 102-3). While the topic of diffusion/infusion is very
broad, the goal of this paper is to identify these significant factors and develop an understanding of some of the
organizational attributes and dynamics involved. First, main concepts are introduced and defined. Next, factors
external to organizations are identified and then linked to organizational structure, communication pathways, and
social networks.
This paper relies on key findings presented in a variety of research articles, which may be under or overrepresented in literature (Rye and Kimberly, 2007, p. 253). It does not attempt to address systemic problems in
research and design theory (p. 253).
Definitions and Concepts
Before exploring significant factors influencing HIT diffusion and infusion, key terms will be defined and
Diffusion of Innovation Theory is introduced. Key terms used in this paper and their definitions include:
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SIGNIFICANT FACTORS: HIT DIFFUSION/INFUSION
п‚·
Innovation: an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption (Rogers,
2003, p. 475).
п‚·
Adoption: a decision to make full use of an innovation as the best course of action available (Rogers, 2003, p.
473).
п‚·
Implementation: an organizational effort to diffuse an appropriate information technology or innovation within an
organizational community (Eder & Igbaria, 2001, p. 234)4.
п‚·
Diffusion: a process by which innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among members of
a social system (Rogers, 2003, p. 5; Sevick, 2004, p. 8). The term generally refers to the spread of use of an
innovation or technology (Eder & Igbaria, 2001, p. 234).
п‚·
Infusion: the degree of integration with existing business processes (Eder & Igbaria, 2001, p. 234; Ash, 1997, p.
103). When used in regard to an IT implementation, infusion is considered the final stage (Eder & Igbaria, 2001,
p. 234).
Diffusion of Innovations (DOI) Theory was developed in the 1930s but was defined by Everett M. Rogers
in the 1960s (Ash, 1997, p. 103). Rogers found that innovation adoption begins with early adopters, followed by
early and late majorities, and then laggards (Sevick, 2004, p. 8). Critical mass, the most important point in the
process, occurs when enough individuals have adopted an innovation and its further adoption becomes selfsustaining (Sevick, 2004, p. 8). At this point, adopters assume everyone else is an adopter, and non-adopters are
forced to cope or accept the change (Sevick, 2004, p. 8).
Rogers identifies five critical attributes influential to the adoption rate of an innovation (Rogers, 2003, p.
15-16; Sevick, 2004, p. 8):
п‚·
Relative advantage: comparison to existing products or conditions
п‚·
Compatibility: consistency with existing values, past experiences, and needs
п‚·
Complexity: degree to which it is perceived as difficult to understand or use
п‚·
Trialability: degree to which it can be experimented with on a limited basis
п‚·
Observability: results are visible to others
According to Rogers (2003), innovations that have greater relative advantage, compatibility, trialability,
and observability and less complexity will be more rapidly adopted than other innovations (p. 16).
4
This definition by Eder and Igbaria has been slightly modified for the purposes of this paper.
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SIGNIFICANT FACTORS: HIT DIFFUSION/INFUSION
Returning to the diffusion definition presented earlier, Rogers extracts four key elements: the innovation,
communication, time, and the social system through which communication occurs (Rogers, 2003, p. 11). According
to Romano (1990), time is the most important element in diffusion and includes consideration of the innovationdecision process, which has five main steps (p. 13; Rogers, 2003, p. 20):
1. Knowledge: individuals learn about the innovation and how it functions
2. Persuasion: occurs when an individual develops an opinion about the innovation
3. Decision: an individual engages in activity focusing on innovation adoption or rejection
4. Implementation: an innovation is put to use
5. Confirmation : occurs when seeking reinforcement of a decision that has been made
These steps are important in that they result in the decision to adopt or reject an innovation (Romano, 1990,
p. 13).
In summary, Rogers’ work on diffusion of innovations provides a framework for understanding the
processes involved in predicting the success of an innovation. It continues to be applied in many research areas in
order to gain insight to the spreading of ideas and actions in social systems (Green et al., 2009, p. 152.). In regard to
healthcare, Green et al. (2009) note that the theory has been applied to physicians adopting a new drug or evidencebased medical practice, public health officers adopting a new policy, other health professionals intervening on heart
disease risk factors, and organizations adopting new administrative practices (p. 152). In this paper, significant
influential factors pertaining to diffusion and infusion are discussed in relation to a healthcare organization, which
can include but not be limited to a hospital. An application of Rogers’ five attributes influential to an innovation’s
adoption rate are incorporated into a short review of the New South Wales (NSW) information system case study,
which is presented at the end of this paper prior to the conclusion.
External Factors
Looking at the external factors affecting HIT diffusion/infusion first allows for an understanding of why
organizations choose the HIT or other products they do. Learning and/or choose HIT or other products falls into
knowledge and persuasion steps of Rogers’ innovation-decision process. Significant external factors include:
п‚·
Healthcare market characteristics: federal mandates, payment policies, and delivery system
п‚·
Competition
п‚·
Product quality and effectiveness
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SIGNIFICANT FACTORS: HIT DIFFUSION/INFUSION
Federal mandates continue to be a significant issue for healthcare organizations, with focus centered on
achieving Stage One Meaningful Use and a conversion to International Classification of Diseases, 10th Edition
Diagnosis and Procedure Codes (ICD-10) in the next two years (Waldman and Chon, 2007, p. 35, Healthcare
Information Management Systems Society (HIMSS), 2012, p.4). Federal mandates impose an enforceable duty upon
any state government, so healthcare organizations are required to comply with them (Definitions.uslegal.com, 2012).
As such, healthcare organizations may be forced to seek out certain technologies over others in order to comply with
the mandates.
As an example, achieving Stage One Meaningful Use requires eligible professionals, hospitals, and critical
access hospitals (CAHs) to demonstrate meaningful use of a certified electronic health record (EHR) technology in
order to receive incentive payments up to $44,000 over five years under the Medicare EHR Incentive Program
(CMS.gov, 2012). Converting to ICD-10, a diagnostic coding system implemented by the World Health
Organization (WHO) in 1993 to replace ICD-9, will require organizations to update core and secondary computer
programs to accept ICD-10, reengineer business processes to support ICD-10 documentation standards, and enhance
and/or modify EHRs to accommodate new codes (CMS.gov, 2012; EY.com, 2012). Achieving both of these goals
will require organizations to concentrate effort on them and adopt and/or modify HIT to assist in the process
(MedPAC, 2004, p. 166).
Mandates and regulations are one aspect of healthcare market characteristics that can influence HIT
diffusion and infusion. Additional characteristics include payment polices that reward volume rather than quality
and healthcare’s fragmented delivery system (MedPAC, 2004, p. 167). One aspect of broad IT diffusion is the
reward system in place for the IT product (p. 167). In healthcare, fee-for-service payment systems emphasize service
volume, which encourages IT adoption to support billable services, an example of a concentrated effort focused on a
specific organizational area. (p. 172). The fragmented delivery system of healthcare pertains to a network of public
and private financing, healthcare delivery, and quality assurance structures (Brandeis University, 2010). The
challenge of such a fragmented system to HIT diffusion/infusion is the difficulty in adopting technology that can
communicate across disparate systems (Brandeis University, 2010; MedPAC, 2004, p. 172). Thus, while HIT is
often cited as a tool to address system fragmentation, implementation must also occur as practice and care patterns
are redesigned and improved (Brandeis University, 2010).
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SIGNIFICANT FACTORS: HIT DIFFUSION/INFUSION
A driver also linked to system fragmentation and HIT diffusion and infusion is competition, which can be a
facilitator or an inhibitor (Rye and Kimberley, 2007, p. 245). Competition occurs between hospitals that vie for
physicians and the patients they can bring to their network (Quigley, 2011, p. 35; Pauly, 2005, p. 1525; Devers et al.,
2003, p.457). Competition also develops out of the need to create niche services marketed towards consumers and to
develop certain specialty areas of the hospital or system as a center of excellence (Devers et al., 2003, p. 460).
Adopting certain types of technology can incentivize both physicians and patients (p. 35). One example is a
physician portal, which allows for remote patient record access. The portal is used as a competitive strategy to
strengthen relationships with physicians (Grossman et al., 2006, p. 1634). Grossman et al. (2006) noted that “active”
hospitals develop portals in response to competitive pressure, whereas “laggard” hospitals with little or no portal
development are often weaker financially and place a lower priority on clinical IT activities (p. 1634).
While competition influences the development of something such as a physician portal, competition can
also influence whether the portal becomes linked to other data sources to create regional health information
organizations (RHIOs). Grossman et al. (2006) found that competition is viewed as a barrier to (RHIOs), as
“competing and adversarial parties would be required to collaborate and share their more valued asset: patients their
data” (p. 1634). In this situation, competition both facilitated the technology adoption and also inhibited its wider
incorporation into a larger network.
Varying rates of competition also influence HIT diffusion and infusion. Burke et al. (2005) found that
hospitals in urban and highly competitive markets have higher adoption rates of administrative, clinical, and
strategic IT compared to hospitals in rural markets and in areas of low competition (p. 354; Menachemi et al., 2009,
p. S83).
The above examples show that competition influences HIT diffusion and infusion by establishing need for
HIT. Once need is established, the next likely step is identifying quality products, the lack of which can deter HIT
diffusion and infusion. In HIMSS’s February 2012 executive leadership survey, vendors’ inability to effectively
deliver satisfactory products or services was cited as the third greatest barrier to HIT implementation (p.9). One such
example of vendor dissatisfaction occurred in the case of Cerner FirstNet information system deployment in New
South Wales, Australia, hospitals (Patrick, n.d.; Wright, 2011). An extensive review of the system by eHealth expert
John Patrick of the University of Sydney’s Health Information Technology Research Laboratory revealed several
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SIGNIFICANT FACTORS: HIT DIFFUSION/INFUSION
issues, including but not limited to poor software design and failure of the vendor to adequately respond to requests
(Patrick, n.d.; Wright, 2011).
Vendor dissatisfaction was also identified in a 2011 study regarding vendor switching and dropping among
hospitals (Lammers & Zheng, 2011, p. 742). Authors Lammers and Zheng (2011) linked vendor switching and
dropping to dissatisfaction with earlier IT systems (p. 742). The authors found that 28 percent of 1,579 hospitals
reporting a live and operational electronic medical record (EMR) from a named commercial vendor in 2003
switched to another named commercial vendor by 2008, and an additional eighteen percent reported no automated
EMR in 2008 (p. 745).
The authors also identified hospital characteristics associated with HIT vendor switching and dropping (p.
747-8):
п‚·
For-profit hospitals and those with larger portions of Medicaid-covered patients are less likely to switch vendors
п‚·
Not-for-profit hospitals may be more inclined to incur costs of higher quality systems over time
п‚·
Teaching hospitals, more sophisticated users, were less likely to drop the technology
Competition, as discussed earlier, also factors into vendor decisions, as Lammers and Zheng deduced that
technology use signaled a competitive advantage in attracting patients and payers (p. 748). Furthermore, the authors
surmised that competition may stimulate greater effort during implementation to ensure more effective IT
integration into clinical workflow (p. 748).
In summary, the external factors of healthcare market characteristics, competition, and product quality and
effectiveness significantly influence HIT diffusion and infusion. The importance of recognizing these factors has
implications for healthcare organization executives faced with decision-making regarding HIT investment and
management and healthcare policy-makers seeking to positively influence HIT diffusion/infusion (Menachemi,
2011, p. 276).
The next section explores significant factors internal to healthcare organizations that influence HIT
diffusion and infusion and provides insight to how innovation information diffuses from the outside in.
Internal Factors
The previous section explored external factors influential to HIT diffusion and infusion. For HIT diffusion
and infusion to be successful within an organization, its attributes must be in alignment with the prospective
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SIGNIFICANT FACTORS: HIT DIFFUSION/INFUSION
9
implementation strategy. Those attributes, which are significant internal factors and are not necessarily independent
of one another, include:
п‚·
Size
п‚·
People
п‚·
Financial resources
п‚·
Communication pathways and structures
п‚·
Staffing resources
п‚·
Relationships
п‚·
Culture
п‚·
Decision-making
п‚·
Compatibility/fit
п‚·
Support mechanisms
Organizational size is a factor in HIT diffusion and infusion in that larger healthcare practices tend to be
greater users of clinical IT. This suggests that a larger revenue base or more complex practice with greater
management capabilities allows larger groups to better support sizeable HIT investments (MedPAC, 2004, p. 170).
Kimberly and Evanisko (1981) also found that economies of scale enhance feasibility (p. 697-8). Economies of scale
refers to lower average costs achieved from the spreading of fixed costs over units of production, which can be taken
to be the number of patients serviced in a given year (Yafchak, 2000, p. 67). The idea is that greater volumes of
activity make it easier for organizations to better afford innovations (Kimberly & Evanisko, 1981, p. 699).
Even for some larger organizations, available financial resources to spur HIT diffusion and infusion can be
difficult to achieve. HIMSS surveys of IT executive leaders tend to be representative of larger organizations – those
with an average bed size of 479 (HIMSS, 2012, p. 8; HIMSS, 2006, p. 4). Almost all executive IT leader surveys
prior to February 2012 reported that lack of adequate financial support was the predominant barrier to HIT
implementation (HIMSS, 2012, p. 8; HIMSS, 2006, p. 6). The 2012 HIMSS survey, the most recent, reveals the
resource of concern pertaining to HIT implementation is now adequate staffing (p. 9).
The concern over HIT staffing resources is reflected elsewhere, including a February 2011 article by
Joseph Goedert for HealthDataManagement.com in which concerns were expressed by both chief information
officers and vendors. One CIO says In particular, he's seeing "kids applying right out of school and thinking they
can do these jobs without experience” when three to five years of experience is really needed (Goedert, 2011).
Additionally, vendors have an equally difficult time, with one commenting on the ease of finding people with skills
in 20- to 25-year old technology and the difficulty of finding those with modern IT skills (Goedert, 2011).
SIGNIFICANT FACTORS: HIT DIFFUSION/INFUSION
Assuming financial and staffing resources are in place to support HIT adoption, will an organization’s
culture and existing work practices be receptive to HIT? Tuan and Venkatesh (2010) find organizational culture
influences innovation (and thus possibly HIT) in two ways (p. 145-6):
1. Through socialization processes in organizations, individuals learn what behavior is
acceptable and how activities should function. Norms develop. Individuals will make
assumptions about whether innovative behavior forms part of the way in which the
organization operates.
2. The basic values, assumptions, and beliefs become enacted in established forms of
behaviors and activity and are reflected as structures, policy, practices, management
practices, and procedures. Individuals in organizations come to perceive what is
considered valuable and how they should act in the work place.
In short, organizational culture “affects the extent to which innovative solutions are encouraged, supported,
and implemented” and significantly influences organizational success (p. 145-6). The extent to which personnel feel
empowered while also working with an organization that allows flexibility positively influences innovation (p. 146).
If an organization is accepting of innovations, will that innovation be compatible and fit within the
organization’s existing structure and work processes? An innovation such as HIT may have greater difficulty
becoming integrated into an organization as compared to something more specific such as a tool used for medical
imaging because it tends to be disruptive to existing work flow processes (MedPAC, 2004, p. 167). This highlights
the importance of recognizing technological “fit” and the work context into which it is introduced (Melville &
Ramirez, 2008, p. 250). The NSW case mentioned earlier is one such example of poor HIT fit within an organization
in that the organization’s strategy-structure, strategy-structure-management processes, and strategy-structure-role
relationships impeded diffusion (Southon et al., 1997, p. 112; Patrick, n.d., p. 20). In summary, it’s important to note
the role of an IT endeavor in regard to supporting business processes and operations, management and employee
decision-making, and strategic decision-making for competitive advantage and future planning (Melville &
Ramirez, 2008, p. 250).
The preceding paragraphs have addressed some of the organizational attributes that affect HIT
diffusion/infusion: size, resources, culture, and compatibility/fit. The next significant factor affecting HIT
diffusion/infusion is people. The people within an organization are important because they can help find and then
diffuse information through their relationships and communication pathways. They can also inhibit
diffusion/infusion. The following sections explore the roles of individuals in HIT diffusion and infusion.
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SIGNIFICANT FACTORS: HIT DIFFUSION/INFUSION
Before the onset of meaningful use and conversion to ICD-10 made its way into recent headlines and
journal articles, prior work existed on the subject of the way in which information makes its way into a healthcare
organization from the outside (Ash, 1997; Fitzgerald, 2003). This subject area is still important and relevant because
it established the communication foundation upon which organizations still function.
Commercial and professional organization channels are important external-to-internal pathways by which
information makes into healthcare organizations. When physicians receive information through commercial
channels and it’s validated through professional channels, adopting technological innovations is more likely (Ash,
1997, p. 103). Fitzgerald et al. (2003) also noted that networks and communities of knowledge are key to acquiring
scientific acceptance (p. 219). In regard to physicians, Fitzgerald et al. (2003) noted that the people to whom they
turn to for information and verification are those whom they know personally, including but not limited to
consultants at local hospitals, their immediate colleagues, or other doctors whom they had known for a long time (p.
222). In regard to nurses and allied health professionals, Fitzgerald et al. (2003) found these professionals were more
likely to consult someone in their own profession for verification of evidence, may receive information “filtered
down” from physicians, or receive regular nurse newsletters from facilitators (p. 222, 224). Regardless of the means
in which it is accomplished, these findings show that trust is an issue in the establishment of credibility (p. 222).
Once an organization’s information-seekers gain knowledge of an innovation and are convinced of its
credibility and usefulness, these people can evolve into champions who then actively and enthusiastically promote
the innovation, build support, and ensure technological implementation (Ash, 1997, p. 103). These people can then
utilize an organization’s internal communication structure to promote discussion, encourage debate, and thus diffuse
the knowledge of the technology/innovation (Fitzgerald et al., 2003, p. 222; Rye and Kimberly, 2007, p. 262). In
some instances, the champions become project managers and begin to build up teams (Tuan & Venkatesh, 2010, p.
148).
As communication of an innovation makes its way around the inner workings of an organization, the
relationships between staff become important to the success or failure of diffusion and infusion. Fitzgerald et al.
(2003) noted that good relationships between partners, physicians, and the rest of the professional and administrative
staff form the foundation for improvement and innovation (p. 224). Diffusion and infusion is less likely when
relationships are dysfunctional and conflicts exist (p. 224).
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SIGNIFICANT FACTORS: HIT DIFFUSION/INFUSION
Once awareness of a technological innovation implementation heightens throughout an organization,
decision-making both at the organizational and individual levels becomes influential to diffusion and infusion.
Organizational decision-making can be either centralized or decentralized. Centralized decision-making is often
done by a smaller number of people operating at the upper echelons of an organization, whereas decentralized
decision-making delegates authority to all levels of management and in all of the organization
(Managementstudyguide.com, 2012; Vitez, 2012). For HIT adoption, decentralized decision-making and top
management support can positively impact success (Ash, 1997, p. 103).
Tuan and Venkatesh (2010) also looked at promotion and implementation of technological innovation
from a management perspective (p. 148). When comparing top down to staff up decision-making, they found that
top down decision-making may hinder innovation from within (p. 148). In these types of environments, staff might
see technological innovation as top-management’s business and would learn to use new technology when it was
implemented in their department (p. 147). In contrast, innovation is more positively influenced by staff working in
supportive environments in which they are encouraged to make beneficial changes, minor or major (p. 147).
Referred to as “chaos within guidelines,” top management has a set of strategic goals but allows personnel freedom
within the context of these goals (p. 147). Says one doctor surveyed in Tuan and Vekatesh’s study, “The director
always tells me to search for new technology, whether it is in treatment or management scope, which is beneficial to
patients and makes [our organization] distinctive” (p. 147).
These examples clearly show how influential an organization’s decision-making processes can be to
diffusion and infusion and provide insight to staff activeness or passiveness in regard to their organization’s goals
and strategies.
Upper level management decision-making may be influential in getting new technology adopted, but actual
diffusion and use of a technology could be inhibited by decision-making at the individual level (Ash, 1997, p. 103).
Several factors influence an individual’s decision to use a new technology. Recall from the discussion of Rogers’
Diffusion of Innovations (DOI) Theory that the five critical attributes influential to the adoption rate of an
innovation include relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trailability, and observability (2003, p. 15-16).
Supporting evidence for these attributes is as follows.
Ash (1997) found that when potential users are included in decision-making and communication is accurate
and timely, they accept those decisions more readily (p. 108). Rye and Kimberly (2007) note that decisions to use
12
SIGNIFICANT FACTORS: HIT DIFFUSION/INFUSION
technology are influenced by ease of use and compatibility with routines (p. 252). In addition to these factors, Putzer
and Park (2010) identified job relevance, belief that the item improves care, ease and efficiency of operational
management, and executive management support also contribute to decisions to use an innovation (p. 6-7).
In summary, the internal factors of size, financial and staffing resources, culture, compatibility/fit, people,
communication pathways and structure, relationships, decision-making, and support mechanisms can significantly
influence HIT diffusion and infusion. As mentioned in the previous section on external factors, the importance of
recognizing these factors can influence executive management and policy-makers in their decision-making
processes. Great sums of money are being invested in HIT implementation projects (Southon et al., 1997, p. 113).
Recognizing significant factors influential factors can make or break a project (Sevick, 2004).
Putting it all Together: A Short Review of the NSW Case Study
The NSW case, mentioned previously in this paper in regard to issues with vendor dissatisfaction and poor
IT fit within an organization, was one in which implementation of several information system components into
NSW’s Public Health System (PHS) failed. The NSW case has been covered extensively in research efforts,
including but not limited to Professor John Patrick of the University of Sydney, Australia (n.d.), and Southon et al.
(1997). The review performed by Southon et al. (1997) looked at the implementation of the system into the NSW’s
PHS and its diffusion through the organization (p. 112). As noted by Southon et al. (1997), NSW sought to better
manage resources with the use of HIT and decided to implement simultaneously three core systems: financial,
pathology and patient administration (PAS)/clinicals (p. 113). In general, the project failed over time, and the PAS
clinical system was completely withdrawn after being tried in several pilot sites (p. 113). The overall financial loss
from this effort is estimated at $12M (p. 113).
As mentioned previously, Roger’s five attributes influential to an innovation’s adoption rate include
relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability (2003, p. 15-16). Using Southon and
fellow authors’ 1997 research, these attributes have been applied to the NSW case. Findings are as follows (p. 1179):
п‚·
Relative advantage: comparison to existing products or conditions
� A task that used to take twenty seconds took several minutes; “there did not appear to be any significant gain
for staff”
пѓ� Clinicians were losing functionality
п‚·
Compatibility: consistency with existing values, past experiences, and needs
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SIGNIFICANT FACTORS: HIT DIFFUSION/INFUSION
� “They found a considerable difference between what the system provided and what they considered they
needed”
п‚·
Complexity: degree to which it is perceived as difficult to understand or use
� “The system was considered rather user unfriendly by clinicians"
п‚·
Trialability: degree to which it can be experimented with on a limited basis
пѓ� A total of five pilot sites were used
п‚·
Observability: results are visible to others
пѓ� Managers saw little cost savings or resolution of problems
пѓ� A single implementation was not commercially viable
Significant external factors influential in this case study include political pressure to curtail costs, the
likelihood of future governmental reporting requirements, and product quality and effectiveness (Southon et al.,
1997, p. 116). Significant influential internal factors include size, compatibility/fit, decision-making, and
communication. While size was discussed previously in the context of economies of scale, size in the NSW case
refers to a geographically dispersed individual units ranging in size from 800-bed hospitals to smaller outpatient
clinics (p. 119). The compatibility and fit of the HIT system within the existing NSW was an issue (p. 119). While
the HIT selection team of central policy makers and IT specialists included doctors and managers, decision-making
will still mostly concentrated at the top of the organization (p. 116). The communication pathways were not very
effective in diffusing/infusing the technology because most medical staff went untrained and others collectively
voiced complaints about user unfriendliness (p. 118).
In summary, the principal lesson from the NSW case was the inability of the current organizational
environment to accommodate an HIT system (p. 112). This lack of IT-organizational fit makes diffusion difficult to
manage (p. 122).
Conclusion
External and internal factors can significantly impact HIT diffusion and infusion. Understanding influential
external factors such as healthcare market characteristics (federal mandates, payment policies, and delivery system),
competition, and product quality and effectiveness can provide insight to organizational decision-making and
reasons why some innovations are more highly sought than others. Internal factors such as organizational size,
financial and staffing resources, compatibility/fit, culture, and people all affect the manner in which HIT gets
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SIGNIFICANT FACTORS: HIT DIFFUSION/INFUSION
diffused into the organization and the extent to which it becomes integrated into business practices. Identifying and
understanding significant influential factors has implications for resource allocation strategies and policy-making.
As mentioned previously, this paper relies on key concepts presented in a variety of research articles.
Articles tended to vary in terms of study methodology. While extraction of key concepts from these sources may be
sufficient for a broad topic such as the one presented herein, comparing and then hypothesizing from studies that use
different methodologies can lead to erroneous conclusions (Sale et al., 2002, p. 43; Kimberly & Rye, 2007, p. 253).
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SIGNIFICANT FACTORS: HIT DIFFUSION/INFUSION
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of Management Science, 29(3), 233-242.
Federal Mandate. (2012).In USLegal.com online. Retrieved from: http://definitions.uslegal.com/f/federal-mandate/
Fitzgerald, L., Ferli, E., & Hawkins, C. (2003). Innovation in Healthcare: How does Credible Evidence Influence
Professionals? Health and Social Care in the Community, 11(3), 219–228.
16
SIGNIFICANT FACTORS: HIT DIFFUSION/INFUSION
Goedert. J. (2011, February 1). Tackling the Health I.T. Workforce Shortage. Retrieved from:
http://www.healthdatamanagement.com/issues/19_2/tackling-the-health-i.t.-workforce-shortage-418041.html?zkPrintable=true
Green, L. W., Ottoson, J. M., Garcia, C., & Hiatt, R. A. (2009). Diffusion Theory and Knowledge Dissemination,
Utilization, and Integration in Public Health. Annual Review of Public Health, 30(1), 151-174.
Grossman, J. M., Bodenheimer, T. S., & McKenzie, K. (2006, November/December). Hospital-Physician Portals:
The Role of Competition in Driving Clinical Data Exchange. Health Affairs, 25(6), 1629-1636.
Healthcare Information Management Systems Society (HIMSS). (2012, February 21). 2012 HIMSS Leadership
Survey: Senior IT Executive Results. Retrieved from:
http://www.himss.org/content/files/2012FINAL%20Leadership%20Survey%20with%20Cover.pdf
Kimberly, J. R. (1978, December). Hospital Adoption of Innovation: The Role of Integration into External
Informational Environments. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 19(4), 361-373.
Kimberly, J. R., & Evanisko, M. J. (1981). Organizational Innovation: The Influence of Individual, Organizational,
and Contextual Factors on Hospital Adoption of Technological and Administrative Innovations. Academy
of Management Journal, 24(4), 689-713.
Lammers, E. J., & Zheng, K. (2011). Characteristics Associated with Hospital Health IT Vendor Switching and
Dropping. American Medical Informatics Association (AMIA) Annual Symposium Proceedings, 742-749.
Managementstudyguide.com. (2012). Centralization and Decentralization. Retrieved from:
http://www.managementstudyguide.com/centralization_decentralization.htm
Medicare Payment Advisory Commission (MedPAC). (2004, June). Information Technology in Health Care. Report
to the Congress: New Approaches in Medicare, 156-181. Retrieved from:
http://www.medpac.gov/document_TOC.cfm?id=315
Melville, N. & Ramirez, R. (2008). Information Technology Innovation Diffusion: an Information Requirements
Paradigm. Info Systems, 18(3), 247–273.
Menachemi, N., Shin, D. Y., Ford, E. W., & Yu, F. (2011, July/September). Environmental Factors and Health
Information Technology Management Strategy. Health Care Management Review, 36(3), 275-285.
Menachemi, N., Brooks, R. G., Schwalenstocker, E., & Simposon, L. (2009, January). Use of Health Information
Technology by Children’s Hospitals in the United States. Pediatrics, 123(2), S80-S84.
17
SIGNIFICANT FACTORS: HIT DIFFUSION/INFUSION
Okafor, M. C., & Thomas, J. (2008, March). Presence of Innovation Adoption-Facilitating Elements in Hospitals,
and Relationships to Implementation of Clinical Guidelines. The Annals of Pharmacotherapy, 42, 354-360.
Pare, G., & Trudel, M. (2007). Knowledge Barriers to PACS Adoption and Implementation in Hospitals.
International Journal of Medical Informatics, 76, 22-33.
Patrick, J. (n.d.). A Critical Essay on the Deployment of an ED Clinical Information System – Systemic Failure or
Bad Luck? Draft V6.0. Retrieved from: http://sydney.edu.au/engineering/it/~hitru/essays/Pt%201%20%20The%20Story%20of%20the%20Deployment%20of%20an%20ED%20Clinical%20Information%20Sy
stem6.0.pdf
Pauly, M. V. (2005, November/December). Competition and New Technology. Health Affairs, 24(6), 1523-1535.
Quigley, K. (2011, December 12-18). Healthy Competition. San Diego Business Journal, 32(50), 1, 35).
Ramono, C. (1990, December). Diffusion of Technology Innovation. Advances in Nursing Science, 13(2), 11 - 21.
Rye, C. B. & Kimberly, J. R. (2007, June). The Adoption of Innovations by Provider Organizations in Health Care.
Medical Care Research and Review, 64(3), 235-278.
Sale, J.E.M., Lohfeld, L.H., & Brazil, K. Revisiting the Quantitative-Qualitative Debate: Implications for MixedMethods Research. Quality & Quantity, 36, 43-53.
Sevick, P. (2004, September). Innovation Diffusion. Business Communications Review, 34(9), 8-11.
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Timmons, S. (2003). Nurses Resisting Information Technology. Nursing Inquiry, 10(4), 257-269.
Tuan, L. T., & Venkatesh, S. (2010, July). Organizational Culture and Technological Innovation Adoption in Private
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Vitez, O. (2012). Centralized vs. Decentralized Organizational Structure. Retrieved from:
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18
SIGNIFICANT FACTORS: HIT DIFFUSION/INFUSION
Wright, C. (2011, March 7). Doctors want NSW eHealth System Scrapped. Retrieved from:
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19
166
Sample: PowerPoint Presentation
This sample was prepared for Drexel INFO 731. Course description
and goals are here.
8/10/2012
SignificantВ InfluentialВ FactorsВ AffectingВ HealthВ InformationВ TechnologyВ DiffusionВ andВ Infusion
By
LisaВ В Romanoski
DrexelВ University
JuneВ 8,В 2012
DefinitionsВ andВ Concepts
• Innovation: an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption.
• Adoption: a decision to make full use of an innovation as the best course of action available.
• Implementation: an organizational effort to diffuse an appropriate information technology or innovation within an organizational community.
• Diffusion: a process by which innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among members of a social system. The term generally refers to the spread of use of an innovation or technology.
• Infusion: the degree of integration with existing business processes. When used in regard to an IT implementation, infusion is considered the final stage.
1
8/10/2012
DiffusionВ ofВ InnovationВ Theory
• Early adopters ‐> early/late majorities ‐> laggards
• 5 critical attributes influential to adoption rate:
1. RelativeВ advantage:В comparisonВ toВ existingВ productsВ orВ conditions
2. Compatability:В consistencyВ withВ existingВ values,В pastВ experiences,В andВ needs
3. Complexitiy:В degreeВ toВ whichВ itВ isВ perceivedВ asВ difficultВ toВ understandВ orВ us
4. Trailability:В degreeВ toВ whichВ itВ canВ beВ experimentedВ withВ onВ aВ limitedВ basis
5. Observability:В resultsВ areВ visibleВ toВ others
Knowledge ‐> Persuasion ‐> Decision ‐> Implementation ‐> Confirmation
Factors
2
8/10/2012
ExternalВ Factors
• Healthcare Market Characteristics
пЃ¶
пЃ¶
пЃ¶
Federal mandates Meaningful Use ICD‐10
PaymentВ policies
DeliveryВ System
• Competition
пЃ¶
Physicians,В patients
• Product quality and effectiveness
(FromВ Coast,В MayВ 2012)
InternalВ Factors:В SizeВ andВ Resources
• Size
• Financial resources
• Staffing resources
“Kids [are] applying right out of school and thinking they can do these jobs without experience when three to five years of experience is really needed.” (Goedert, 2011)
3
8/10/2012
InternalВ Factors:В CultureВ andВ Fit
• Culture
• Compatibility/fit
“The director always tells me to search for new technology, whether it is in treatment or management scope, which is beneficial to patients and makes [our organization] distinctive.” (Tuan & Venkatesh, 2010, p. 147).
InternalВ Factors:В People
• People
• Communication pathways and structures
• Relationships
4
8/10/2012
Internal Factors: Decision‐making
• Decision‐making
пЃ¶
пЃ¶
Centralized
Decentralized
• Support • People
• Recall: 5 critical attributes influential to adoption rate:
1. RelativeВ advantage
2. Compatability
3. Complexitiy
4. Trailability
5. Observability
Conclusions
• External and internal factors are important
• Provides insight to:
пЃ¶ InnovationВ adoption
пЃ¶ ResourceВ allocationВ strategies
 Policy‐making
 What to expect pre‐ and post‐decision
ThankВ you!В В Questions:В [email protected]
5
172
Sample: Use Case
This sample , the term project, was prepared for Drexel INFO
620, Information Systems Analysis & Design. Details for this
course are as follows:
Description
This course provides an advanced treatment of systems analysis and design with
special emphasis on object-oriented analysis and design techniques based on the
Unified Modeling Language (UML). It discusses major modeling techniques of
UML including use-case modeling, class modeling, object-interaction modeling,
dynamic modeling and state diagrams and activity diagrams, subsystems
developments, logical design, and physical design.
Course Objectives
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
Develop an understanding of the fundamentals of Object-Oriented Design and
its evolution
Develop proficiency in the Unified Process and Unified Modeling Language
concepts by creating domain models, system sequence diagrams, UML
interaction diagrams, and UML class diagrams
Apply General Responsibility Assignment Software Patterns or Principles
(GRASP) concepts to a given problem domain
Use Case Assignment Details
This assignment involved developing a fully dressed use case for an urgent care
patient registration system, along with a use case diagram.
Use Case Name
UC1: Register Patients
Assumptions
The facility has a laboratory and radiology unit, but no pharmacy. Clinical decision
support and adverse event detection is not included in application.
Scope
Patient registration application
Level
User goal
Primary Actor
Clerk and clinician (nurse, doctor, radiologist, and/or laboratory assistant). “User”
may refer to clerks or clinicians.
Stakeholders/
Interests
Clerk
Wants to enter Patient details (name, address, phone, height,
weight, medical insurance number, and short problem description),
determine patient priority, know which rooms are available, know
which doctor is assigned to which room, and assign patients to a
room.
Nurse
Wants to acquire Patients’ physiological characteristics, including
temperature and blood pressure and enter them into the
application.
Doctor
Wants to enter illness and treatment regimen, including prescribed
medications.
Radiologist
Wants to append radiology results and files to Patients’ files.
Laboratory
Assistant
Wants to append lab results to Patients’ files.
Staff
Wants to access system to know status of treatment rooms: i.e., in
use, needs cleaning, or available. Wants to view list of processed
patients, including names and problem descriptions, and assigned
room and associated doctor’s name.
Patient
Wants medical attention to assist in overcoming illness and
accurate transcription/coding of the visit for insurance purposes.
Healthcare
Organization
Wants to know what services were provided to which patients by
whom. Wants to link services to coding information for billing
purposes.
Payer/
Insurance
Wants to know what services were provided to which patients.
Wants services to be linked to payer/insurance for billing purposes.
Preconditions
Clerk, clinicians, staff, and healthcare organization are identified and
authenticated.
Success
Guarantees
(Postconditions)
Patient data, patient room assignments, doctor room assignments, xrays/imaging, lab results, illness and treatment regimen, services rendered and
associated coding information, and treatment room status saved. Priority listing
correctly calculated and updated as patients come in, are seen, and go home.
Main Success
Scenario
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
Extensions
Patient arrives at facility.
Clerk checks in Patient: acquires data (name, address, phone, height,
weight, medical insurance number, and short problem description).
System records Patient data.
Clerk determines Patient priority based on problem description.
Clerk enters Patient priority into system.
System records Patient priority listing.
Clerk assigns Doctors to certain rooms.
Clerk enters Doctor room assignments into system.
System records Doctor room assignments.
Clerk checks room availability.
Clerk assigns a Patient to a room.
System records Patient room assignment.
System updates Patient room availability list.
Patient goes to assigned room.
Nurse takes Patient’s temperature and blood pressure.
Nurse enters Patient’s physiological data into system.
System records Patient’s physiological data.
Doctor sees Patient.
Doctor may order lab work and/or x-rays.
Laboratory performs test(s) if lab work is ordered.
Laboratory assistant enters test results into system.
System records test results.
Radiology takes x-ray(s) if ordered.
Radiologist saves x-ray(s) in system.
System records x-ray(s).
Doctor accesses and reviews lab test results and/or x-ray(s).
Doctor makes a diagnosis.
Doctor prescribes a treatment regimen and/or medication(s), including
dosage.
Doctor enters treatment regimen and/or medications, including dosage into
computer.
System records treatment regimen and/or medication information.
Patient leaves facility.
Clerk enters information on services rendered into system.
System records information on services rendered.
System associates rendered services with medical coding for billing.
System produces and sends a bill to payer/insurance company and/or
patient.
System notifies Staff that a treatment room needs cleaning.
Staff clean treatment room.
Staff access and update the system to acknowledge room availability.
*a. During any log in, user enters invalid authentication code.
1. System signals error to User.
2. System requests User re-type authentication code.
3. System acknowledges authentication code.
3a. System recognizes invalid authentication code for second time.
3b. User re-enters authentication code.
1. System recognizes invalid authentication code for third time.
2. User re-enters authentication code.
3. System fails to recognize authentication code.
4. System locks User out.
5. System signals error to user.
6. System indicates User must contact IT.
4. System allows User access.
*b. During any data entry, User enters invalid entry at or in on-screen
Extensions
prompts/boxes.
1. System signals error to User.
2. System indicates numeric or character entry.
3. System indicates required length of entry.
4. System indicates numeric range for numeric entries.
5. User re-enters item.
*c. During any data entry, entry length exceeds text box character spacing limits.
1. System signals error to User.
2. System indicates required length of entry.
2a. User enters text.
3. System records entry.
*d. At any time, system fails.
To support recovery and correct data recording, ensure data can be recovered
from any step of the scenario.
1. User restarts system, logs in, and requests recovery of prior state.
2. System reconstructs prior state.
2a. System does not perform recovery:
1. System signals error to User.
2. System enters a clean state.
3. User begins new session.
*e. During any data entry, medical insurance number doesn’t match valid patient.
1. System signals error to User.
2. User re-enters medical insurance number.
2a. System fails to identify Patient.
1. System signals error.
2. User calls Clerk to verify medical insurance number for a specific
patient.
3. User obtains correct medical insurance number.
3. System finds Patient.
2-3a. Patient says he or she does not have a medical insurance number.
1. Clerk enters “no” for medical insurance into the system.
2. System records patient data.
4a. If patient’s issue is possibly life, limb, or eyesight threatening, his or her
condition is an emergency and should be treated at a hospital emergency room,
not at an urgent care center. Examples of such conditions include but are not
limited to chest pain, difficulty breathing, severe bleeding, overdose, possible
stroke, severe trauma, open fractures, and penetrating eye injuries.
1. Clerk immediately calls 911 for ambulance transport.
8a. Clerk enters conflicting Doctor room assignments into system.
1. System retains selected Doctor.
2. System signals error to Clerk.
3. System indicates no two rooms can be assigned to the same Doctor.
4. System provides pop-up box list to Clerk showing available rooms.
5. Clerk selects an available room for the selected Doctor.
6. System records Doctor room assignment.
8b. All
1.
2.
3.
4.
rooms are assigned to Doctors.
System signals error to Clerk.
System indicates to Clerk that all rooms are assigned.
System asks Clerk if Doctor is placed on “float” duty.
Clerk either checks or unchecks box for “float” duty.
11a. Clerk enters conflicting Patient room assignment into system.
Extensions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
System retains selected Patient.
System signals error to Clerk.
System indicates no two rooms can be assigned to the same Patient.
System provides pop-up box list to Clerk showing available rooms.
Clerk selects an available room for the selected patient.
System records Patient room assignment.
11b. All treatment rooms are full.
1. System retains selected Patient.
2. System signals error to Clerk.
3. System indicates all patient rooms are full.
4. System asks Clerk if Clerk wants to assign patient to next available
patient room.
5. Clerk selects “yes” or “no.”
5a. System acknowledges “yes” response.
1. System assigns selected Patient to next available room.
5b. System acknowledges “no” response.
1. System exits Patient room assignment screen.
19a. Doctor orders lab work:
1. System asks Doctor to select from an on-screen list of available lab tests.
2. Doctor selects from available tests.
2a. Doctor wants a modified version of available lab test or test not listed.
1. System offers Doctor an “other” option from available test list.
2. Doctor selects “other.”
3. System provides free form text box.
4. Doctor types information into text box.
5. Doctor selects “submit.”
3. System records selected lab test(s).
4. System accesses laboratory department’s schedule.
5. System inserts Patient name, ID, and requested test(s) into laboratory
department’s schedule in chronological order based on time of request.
5a. System fails to communicate with laboratory department’s schedule.
1. System restarts communication.
a. Schedule unavailable.
b. System informs user schedule unavailable.
c. Doctor calls laboratory department to schedule test(s).
2. System records patient data into schedule.
19b. Doctor orders x-rays:
1. System asks Doctor to select from an on-screen list of available x-rays.
2. Doctor selects from available list.
2a. Doctor has special instructions for x-ray(s).
6. System offers Doctor a “special instructions” option from available
x-ray list.
7. Doctor selects “special instructions.”
8. System provides free form text box.
9. Doctor types information into text box.
10. Doctor selects “submit.”
3. System records selected x-ray(s).
4. System accesses radiology department’s schedule.
5. System inserts Patient name, ID, and requested x-ray(s) into radiology
department’s schedule in chronological order based on time of request.
5a. System fails to communicate with x-ray department’s schedule.
1. System restarts communication.
a. Schedule unavailable.
b. System informs user schedule unavailable.
c. Doctor calls radiology department to schedule test(s).
2. System records Patient data into schedule.
Extensions
26a. Doctor can’t access lab test results and/or x-ray(s).
1. Doctor logs out of system.
2. Doctor restarts computer.
3. Doctor logs back in to system.
3a. Lab test results and/or x-ray(s) not accessible.
1. System informs Doctor lab test results and/or x-rays not
available.
2. System instructs Doctor to call laboratory and/or radiology to
discuss results.
29a. Doctor wants to include special prescription instructions.
1. Doctor selects “special instructions” on treatment regimen and
prescription(s) screen.
2. Doctor enters text into box.
2a. System won’t accept data entry.
1. Doctor exits system.
2. Doctor logs back in to system.
3. Doctor makes second attempt to enter text.
3a. System won’t accept text during second attempt.
1. System instructs Doctor to call IT.
34a. System cannot find medical code for services rendered.
1. System signals error to Clerk.
2. System asks Clerk to re-enter rendered services.
2a. System does not find a medical code for second entry.
1. System signals error to Clerk.
2. System suggests selecting “other” category for entry.
3. Clerk selects “other category.
4. Clerk enters information.
3. System applies medical code for services rendered.
35a. Payer/insurance company’s system unavailable.
1. Clerk logs out of system.
2. Clerk logs back in to system.
3. Clerk tries to resend bill.
3a. System signals that payer/insurance company’s system is unavailable.
1. Clerk prints out bill.
2. Clerk mails hard copy of bill to payer/insurance company.
4. System signals successful transmittal.
38a. Room availability unknown.
1. Clerk contacts staff to check availability of room.
2. Clerk requests staff log in to the system to update room availability list.
Special
Requirements
None at this time.
Technology/
Data Variations
List
All data entry via keyboard and mouse.
Frequency of
Occurrence
Continuous
Miscellaneous
Does the system need to be designed to include not only existing ICD-9 but also
15-16. In the next few years, nurses may begin using IPads to collect patient
physiological information.
ICD-10 for medical coding?
Can system be linked to interface with payer/insurance provider?
Patient
Patient Registration
Application
Requests
Treatment
Registers Patients
Clerk
Prioritizes
Patients
Assigns Doctors to Rooms
Assigns Patients to Rooms
Updates Room Availability
List
Nurse
Records Patients’ Physiological
Data
Orders Lab
Tests
Doctor
В«actorВ»
Healthcare
Organization
Orders X-Rays
Laboratory
Assistant
Records Lab
Tests
Records X-Rays
Radiologist
Records Treatment Regimen
and/or Medication(s)
Records Services
Rendered
Associates Services
Rendered with Medical
Produces and Sends Bill
to Payer/Insurance
Staff
Manages Treatment Room
Status
В«actorВ»
Payer/
Insurance
180
Sample: UML Class Diagram and Domain Model
This sample was prepared for Drexel INFO 620. Course description
and goals are here.
Physiological_data
-patient_ID
-temperature
-blood_pressure
1
records
1..*
Nurse
-nurse_ID
1
1..*
sees
Patient
Clerk
-patient_ID
-date_visit
-med_number
-ssn
-fname
-lname
records -address
-city
-state
1 *
-postal_code
-phone
-race
-date_of_birth
-height
-weight
-problem
System
works_on
-clerk_ID
-id
1..* 1
has
0..*
Staff
-staff_ID
1..*
Room
assigned_to
0..1
1
0..*
Xray
recorded-as
-room_ID
-assignment
-status
1
1..*
1
-xray_ID
-patient_ID
-xray_date
-xray_findings
-xray_code
0..*
1
Test
-test_ID
-patient_ID
-test_date
-test_findings
-test_code
Diagnosis
Doctor
orders
0..*
-service_ID
-patient_ID
-code
-test_ID
-xray_ID
1
1
1
1
1
-diagnosis_ID
-patient_ID
-date_of_init_diagnosis
requires
1
Bill
-bill_ID
-patient_ID
-bill_issue_date
-service_ID
-bill_total
1
requires
0..*
0..*
Treatment
-treatment_ID
-trtmnt_date_start
-trtmnt_type
produces
1
0..*
recorded-as
makes
-doctor_ID
1
orders
0..*
has
has
1
Service
cleans
*
Prescription
-rx_id
-rx_date_start
-rx_name
-rx_dosage
Register Patient Scenario
:System
:Clerk
:LabAssistant
:Radiologist
:Nurse
:Doctor
:Staff
logson(clerkID)
authenticates(clerkID)
entersPatientData
patientID
sendsPatient(roomID)
roomID
assignsDrtoRoom(drID, roomID)
drID, roomID
enters(physiologicalData)
authenticates(dataRecord)
schedules(testID)
ordersXray(xrayID)
schedules(xrayID)
gets(testID)
testID
enters(testResults)
authenticates(testResults)
gets(xrayID)
xrayID
enters(xrayResults)
authenticates(xrayResults)
gets(testResults, xrayResults)
testResults, xrayResults
prescribes(treatmentID, prescriptionID)
gets(roomIDstatus)
roomIDstatus
updates(roomIDstatus)
authenticates(roomIDstatus)
createsBill(services, testID, xrayID)
billID
184
Sample: Press Release
This sample was prepared for San Francisco State University
(SFSU) Technical and Professional Writing (TPW) 400,
Fundamentals of Technical and Professional Writing. The
purpose for including it in my portfolio is to demonstrate
competency in writing press releases. Details for this course
are as follows:
Description
This course Introduces forms, methods, standards, and issues central to the work of
career writers in the workplace. Students produce technical instructions, promotions,
reports, and correspondence.
Assignment Details
This assignment focused on learning to write a press release for a virtual reality
simulator.
5DT, Inc.
15375 Barranca Parkway, G-103
Irvine, CA 92618
CONTACT: Lisa Romanoski
Sales Associate
Technology Department
Phone: 949-450-9044
Fax:
949-450-9045
Email: [email protected]
July 7, 2009, 8:00 AM PST
5DT SIMULATOR PUTS THE “DRIVE” BACK IN DRIVERS’ ED
Irvine, CA, July 7, 2009 – 5DT drives into the future with students behind the wheel of
its news virtual reality simulators, engaging students in photorealistic drive scenarios with
motion feedback. More drive time means more safety and fewer accidents, according to 5DT.
The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration states that motor vehicle accidents
account for at least 35% of all deaths. 5DT simulators complement on-road drivers’ education
courses. Instructors can supervise from a separate computer or set pre-determined drive courses
for additional after-hours training. Students navigate in and around other cars and objects. If a
student turns or accelerates, they feel the steering wheel resist to turns or slip out of control.
-- more --
PUTTING THE DRIVE BACK IN DRIVERS’ ED
Page 2
The video-game like experience is a big attraction to students. Instructors see more
students signing up for drivers’ education. “Sometimes students are either too nervous, their
parents won’t let them, or they just aren’t interested in driving,” says Lowell County High
School student Maxx Gavrich. “This is a big hook for them. It’s something new.”
With only one in four high schools offering drivers’ education, according to the San
Francisco Chronicle, 5DT simulators can provide an alternative to courses subject to rising
insurance and gasoline costs. State funding of courses stopped in 1990. The initial purchase cost
is the only cost. 5DT simulators are easy to program, resulting in minimal instructor training.
5DT develops, produces, and distributes customized virtual reality hardware, software,
and systems, with emphasis on simulators and peripherals. With clients around the world, 5DT
serves the automotive, defense, aviation, industrial, marine, mining, and medical industries.
Additional information is available at http://www.5dt.com.
--30--
187
Sample: Instructions
This sample was prepared for SFSU TPW 400. Course description
and goals are here. The purpose for including it in my portfolio
is to demonstrate competency in writing instructions.
Assignment Details
This assignment focused on the learning to write instructions. The subject was write
instructions for attaching a ramsink to a video card. A ramsink is a device that helps cool
the video card.
Attach Super RAMsinks to a BFG Video Card
Introduction
Thank you for your purchase of Super RAMsinks. RAMsinks reduce video card heat, thereby
improving performance. Attachment of a RAMsink will take approximately 60 to 90 minutes.
Follow these instructions to attach a RAMsink to your video card. Familiarity with computer
hardware and terminology is recommended. You should know how to remove and reinstall a
video card.
CAUTION!
Computer Wizardry, Inc., is not responsible for any damage to hardware caused by this
installation. Use a well-ventilated space for all tasks.
Required Items
1. Verify adhesive and thermal compound mixing and application instructions with
manufacturer’s specifications.
2. Do not reinstall the video card in the computer for at least 12 hours after curing.
3. You will need the following items before you begin:
п‚·
Super RAMsinks
п‚·
BFG Video Card
п‚·
600 Grit Sandpaper
п‚·
Cotton Swabs and Ball
п‚·
Masking Tape
п‚·
A toothpick or other mixing tool
п‚·
Old, clean plastic lid on which to mix the adhesive and compound
п‚·
Arctic Silver Premium Silver Thermal Adhesive, or equivalent (adhesive)
п‚·
Arctic Silver Ceramique Premium High Density Thermal Compound, or equivalent
(compound)
Recommended Items for Oxidation Removal
п‚·
Brasso Metal Polish, 8 oz., or equivalent; or steel wool
п‚·
Rubbing Alcohol
п‚·
Rust-Oleum Crystal Clear Enamel Spray, or equivalent (sealant)
I. Oxidation Removal
пѓ� If you are using tin-plated RAMsinks, please proceed to section II.
пѓ� If you are using copper RAMsinks, check for oxidation. Oxidation is caused by air
exposure, resulting in a greenish tint. We recommend you remove oxidation for optimum
performance. Your RAMsink will still work if you choose not to remove oxidation.
Remove oxidation as follows:
1. Choose Brasso Metal Polish, steel wool, or 600 Grit Sandpaper for sanding.
пѓ� If you choose Brasso Metal Polish, soak a cotton ball in solution for sanding.
2. Gently sand all surfaces.
3. Clean all surfaces with a cotton swab tip soaked in rubbing alcohol.
4. Apply a light coat of sealant to all surfaces except the mounting surface (bottom).
5. Allow sealant to dry at room temperature for 30 minutes.
II. Prepare Mounting Surface
1. Gently sand the top of the RAMsinks with 600 Grit Sandpaper.
2. Clean all surfaces with a cotton swab soaked in rubbing alcohol.
3. Tape the edges of the chips with masking tape to ensure no adhesive gets on them.
CAUTION!
Do not allow masking tape to adhere to surface of video card during installation.
III. Adhesive Mix (Mix)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Using a toothpick, mix equal parts resin Part A and curing agent Part B on a plastic lid.
Mix only enough resin and curing agent needed for application.
Apply in approximately 3 minutes after thorough stirring.
Ensure thorough stirring by scrapping lid as you mix.
Immediately add one drop of thermal compound to mix from step 1.
IV. Attach RAMsink to Video card
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Using a toothpick, apply a thin coat of mix to the bottom of the RAMsink.
Firmly press the RAMsink to the video card for 1 minute.
Allow 1 hour for curing of RAMsink to video card.
Remove masking tape from chips after 1 hour.
Allow 12 hours for additional curing of RAMsink to the video card.
Reinstall the video card.
190
Sample: Feasibility Study
This sample was prepared for SFSU TPW 400. Course description
and goals are here. The purpose for including it in my portfolio
is to demonstrate competency in writing a feasibility study.
PrimeCare, Inc.
To:
From:
Subject:
Date:
Jan Debliss, Personnel Director
Lisa Romanoski, Special Assistant to Walter Henocker
Corporate Child Care Feasibility Study
July 30, 2009
High absenteeism can lower the quality of resident care at PrimeCare’s twelve California nursing
facilities. Staff must assist more patients than they are typically assigned in order to cover for
absent employees. Existing and former staff cite child care difficulties as the greatest impediment
to coming to and remaining at work during the day.
In order to ensure quality care, day shift operations must be executed with 96 employees per the
company business plan. We currently have seven vacancies among our day shift staff.
Using an internet-based literature search and telephone interviews, I’ve determined that these
alternatives are most appropriate for our budget and available space at the nursing homes:
1. Onsite child care developed by PrimeCare.
2. Onsite child care through a consortium program for PrimeCare and others.
3. Referral program for offsite child care using a local family day care provider.
I identified the resources and licensing we’ll need through conversations with both Judy Krieger
and Shelly Meyer. Judy Krieger is a Center Advocate at Bananas Inc., a child care resource and
referral service in northern Alameda County. Bananas Inc. provides cost and child care
information to parents and caregivers. Shelly Meyer, Client Outreach Manager at Bright
Horizons, provided information on feasibility options given our available resources. Bright
Horizons provides feasibility studies for the establishment of employer-sponsored child care
onsite child care.
I used the following criteria to determine if an alternative is feasible:
1. Does the cost fall within the monthly $4,000 PrimeCare budget?
2. Do staff out-of-pocket expenses exceed a $120 weekly child care budget?
3. Can we reduce our absenteeism rates and costs by 75%?
Criteria 1: PrimeCare Budget
For Criteria 1, the monthly $4,000 budget is a lump sum amount provided by PrimeCare.
Criteria 2: Affordability
I created Criteria 2, affordability, based on my research. I found that not spending any money on
child care is unrealistic. According to internet sources, some people devote 30-40% of their
income to child care expenses. To determine if an alternative is affordable to our staff earning,
I’ve established a minimum weekly child care budget of $120. This represents 25% of an annual
salary for staff working 40-hour work weeks at a rate of $12 an hour.
Criteria 3: 75% Reduction in Absenteeism Rate and Cost
Criteria 3 is company cost savings from reduced absenteeism. Absenteeism costs PrimeCare
money because we continue to pay salaries and benefits to absent staff. If we provide onsite child
care, we would expect to see reduced absenteeism and cost savings. An alternative must result in
a 75% reduction in absenteeism rate and cost to be a feasible option for us.
Using the Washington Employers Association Method, our current monthly absenteeism rate is
0.97%. HR.com cites 2.1 percent as an “all-time high” for most employers. The money we lose
to absenteeism is approximately $3,024 a month.
To reach a goal of 75% reduction, the absenteeism rate and cost needs to fall to 0.24% and $763,
respectively.
Assumptions
We’re going to need furniture and a first aid kit for the child care center. This one-time startup
cost could be as high as $6,030. The list of items we’ll need can be found at the end of this
report. I used Amazon.com to obtain price information.
I assumed no fees for licensing, advertising, and insurance. You mentioned previously that our
insurance already provides coverage for in-house child care service. We won’t need to advertise
if the center is only for PrimeCare staff use. We also don’t need to obtain a state license. A loop
hole in California law allows some child care centers to operate without a license if parents are
onsite, according to Bananas Inc.
Monthly operating costs for one child care center could be as high as $14,293. This cost includes
supplies, food, and the cost of six caregivers. If we provide onsite care for 30 toddlers, we will
need six caregivers to work in the center. California law requires a ratio of six children to one
caregiver for this age group.
The monthly cost of one caregiver is approximately $1,728, including benefits. I assumed that
the caregiver earns a California minimum wage rate of $8 an hour and works 40 hours a week. I
assumed benefits are approximately 35% of the monthly salary. This information is listed at the
end of this study.
Costs are for one San Francisco Bay Area child care facility. Due to the high cost-of-living, I
assume costs are an acceptable representation of other areas. Costs will vary, but I expect them to
be lower. Salaries are not subject to cost-of-living increases.
ALTERNATIVE 1: ONSITE CHILD CARE DEVELOPED BY PRIMECARE
PrimeCare can provide free onsite child care for 30 children, including all equipment, furniture,
and meals or snacks.
Criteria 1: Cost
As mentioned previously, startup costs can be as much as $6,030. Monthly costs are
approximately $14,293. These costs exceed PrimeCare’s budget.
Alternative 1A
We can reduce startup costs by seeking donations or requiring staff to provide their own supplies
and meals. We will stay within budget if we reduce the number of caregivers. Two caregivers
cost $3,456. However, caregiver reduction results in reduced child space availability. State law
requires one caregiver be designated to six children. Space would be limited to 12 children.
Criteria 2: Affordability
Staff can afford Alternative 1. There are no out-of-pocket expenses for staff.
Criteria 3: 75% Reduction in Absenteeism Rate and Cost
Absenteeism should be reduced by 100% with onsite daycare. This may not be possible because
of child care issues. I assume there will be at least five days each month that an employee may
miss because of child care issues. At least three employees may be absent.
Using these assumptions, the absenteeism rate is reduced to 0.26%. We do not reach a 75%
reduction in absenteeism rate (goal: 0.24%).
The monthly cost we incur for absent staff under this scenario is $1,360. To save money, we
want a 75% reduction in monthly staff costs (goal: $756). We do not reach our goal with onsite
child care.
Figure 8. Monthly Absenteeism Rate with Onsite Child Care Benefit
Days Lost Through Absence per Month
5
Employees on the First Day of the Month
96
Employees on the Last Day of the Month
93
Average Headcount per Month
94.5
Available Workdays per Month
20
Average Number of Workdays per Month
1,890
Rate 0.26%
GOAL 0.24%
Figure 9. Monthly Absenteeism Cost Savings
Hours Lost to Absenteeism Per Month
Wage/Salary Per Hour
Benefits Per Hour
Compensation of Employee Lost per Hour
Compensation Lost to Absent Employees
Other Costs Incidental to Absenteeism
Cost
GOAL
40
$12
$4
$16
$640
$720
$1,360
$756
ALTERNATIVE 2: ONSITE CHILD CARE THROUGH A CONSORTIUM PROGRAM
PrimeCare can partner with other companies to form a child care consortium. Other companies
provide startup costs, meals or snacks, equipment, and furniture in exchange for facility spaces.
We can provide staff and healthcare, but we have only one room. Thirty PrimeCare children will
need care. Other companies in our consortium program may need care for as many as 60
children. If 90 children need care, we will need more space, equipment, and caregivers.
Criteria 1: Cost
If we assume other companies provide the startup, architectural, and construction fees, our cost is
monthly operation of the facility: $25,920. These costs exceed PrimeCare’s budget.
Alternative 2A
We can be totally self-supporting after the first year by providing a sliding-scale fee schedule
like the one in Figure 4. The fee schedule could generate monthly revenue as high as $95,035.
This will cover most, if not all, of our costs.
Criteria 2: Affordability
Our staff’s hourly rate of $12 may be low enough to qualify for a subsidized rate lower than the
rates shown in Figure 4. I assume other users are paid higher hourly rates, which will offset costs
for our staff. As such, staff can afford Alternative 2 and 2A.
Criteria 3: 75% Reduction in Absenteeism Rate and Cost
Absenteeism rates and costs are expected to be reduced in a similar manner to the onsite child
care alternative.
Figure 10. Monthly Operating Costs for Alternative 2
Item
Qty
Arts and Crafts Supplies
0
Disposable Changing Pads (36 Count Box)
0
Cleaning Products
0
Diapers (Economy Pack)
0
Meals for 30 Children
0
Caregivers (Salary and Benefits)
15
Figure 11. Fee Schedule Example
Age
Infants (6 weeks to 18 months)
Toddlers - Preschool (19 months to 6 years)
School Age (over 6 years)
Unit
LS
EA
LS
EA
LS
EA
Monthly
$1,332
$1,077
$760
Weekly
$333
$269
$190
Figure 12. Expected Monthly Revenue
Age
Number
Infants
5
Toddlers - Preschool
75
School Age
10
TOTAL
90
Revenue
$6,660
$80,775
$7,600
$95,035
Cost
$200
$15
$75
$40
$2,700
$1,728
TOTAL
Total
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$25,920
$25,920
ALTERNATIVE 3: REFERRAL PROGRAM FOR OFFSITE CARE
We can develop an internal referral program and find family child care homes for staff. One staff
member can operate the program. Providers are state-regulated and may offer:
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
Services similar to nursery schools
Bilingual environments
Drop-in service (backup care)
Criteria 1: Cost
We can offer this service for approximately $2,080 or less. This is the monthly salary of one full
time staff member. Operating expenses, including computer and telephone usage, are not
expected to increase costs associated with this activity.
Criteria 2: Affordability
Based on data presented in Figure 6, Oakland area family child care providers charge an average
of $48 per day, or $240 per week, including meals. Figure 6 lists the following information:
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
Provider name
Age of the children they care for
Number of children they care for during the day
Hours of operation
Daily cost
The costs listed in Figure 6 indicate that staff cannot afford to use family child care providers.
Alternative 3A
We can issue $120 vouchers to reduce costs. Staff who works on the referral program can be
reduced to a 32-hour work week. Savings result in a budget of $3,984 (Figure 7).
Criteria 3: 75% Reduction in Absenteeism Rate and Cost
Absenteeism may be greater without onsite child care. I assume that at least seven and a half
days each month will be missed by an employee. At least four employees may be absent.
Absenteeism rate is 0.40% under this scenario. Absenteeism cost is $1,680. We do not reach a
75% reduction in absenteeism rate or cost (goals: 0.24%, $763).
Figure 13. Oakland Area Family Child Care Providers: Children in Care, Hours, Cost
Number of
Provider
Age of Children
Children
Hours
Daily Cost
Cared For
Gwendolyn Friend 1 month - 12 years
6
7:30 AM - 5:30 PM
$45
Phuong Le
3 months - 12 years
8
7:30 AM - 5:30 PM
$70
Tracy Mooreland
3 months - 12 years
14
6:15 AM - 9:00 PM
$40
Guadalupe Herrea 6 months - 12 years
8
7:30 AM - 5:30 PM
$36
Figure 14. Budget with a Voucher System
Weekly Average rate
30 Children Need Care
PrimeCare Covers Half the Cost
Staff Hours: $12/hr x 32 hrs/week
BUDGET
$240
$7,200
$3,600
$384
$3,984
Figure 15. Monthly Absenteeism Rate
Days Lost Through Absence per Month
Employees on the First Day of the Month
Employees on the Last Day of the Month
Average Headcount per Month
Available Workdays per Month
Average Number of Workdays per Month
Rate
GOAL
7.5
96
92
94
20
1,880
0.40%
0.24%
Figure 16. Monthly Absenteeism Cost Savings
Total Hours Lost to Absenteeism per Month
Average Wage/Salary per Hour per
Employee
Cost of Benefits per Hour per Employee
Compensation of Employee Lost per Hour
Total Compensation Lost to Absent
Employees
Other Costs Incidental to Absenteeism
1
Cost
GOAL
60
$12
$4
$16
$960
$720
$1,680
$763
SUMMARY
Onsite childcare through a consortium program, with a fee schedule, and an in-house referral
program for offsite child care meet all criteria and are feasible (Figure 10). In general, feasibility
of this benefit is constrained by cost. Next steps in our feasibility process could include a patient
care quality assessment, staff surveys, and a more detailed budget analysis. I recommend we
proceed with this effort.
Figure 17. Feasibility Summary of Onsite Child Care
Alternatives
1 Onsite Care
2 Consortium Program
2A Consortium Program with Fees
3 Referral Program
3A Referral Program with Vouchers
X = Does not meet criteria.
пѓј = Meets criteria.
Budget Affordability
x
пѓј
x
пѓј
пѓј
пѓј
x
пѓј
x
пѓј
Absenteeism
Reduction
пѓј
пѓј
пѓј
пѓј
пѓј
ATTACHMENT
ASSUMPTIONS AND METHODS
Absenteeism Rate
We have at least 18 absent staff per month. We start each month with a full staff of 96. Our
average headcount per month is 89. Average head count is the number of staff who start each
month, added to the number remaining at the end of the month, divided by two. There are 20
workdays in a month, assuming staff work five days a week and there are four weeks in a month.
The average number of workdays per month is the average headcount multiplied by the number
of workdays: 1,850. Eighteen lost days divided by the number of available days yields the
absenteeism rate: 0.97%.
Absenteeism Cost
We have at least 18 absent staff per month. Absent staff would typically work eight hour shifts.
We lose 144 hours a month to absenteeism. Hourly compensation lost per absent staff is $16.
Monthly compensation lost to absent staff is $2,304. Other costs associated with absenteeism can
include cost to pay overtime staff. Overtime pay can cost us as much as $720 a month, assuming
staff works an extra two hours a day for a five day work week. There are four weeks in a month.
Absenteeism costs PrimeCare $3,024 a month.
Figure 1. Startup Costs for Onsite Child Care
Item
Licensing fees
Insurance
Advertising
First aid/CPR Certification
First Aid Kit
High Chairs
Booster Seats
Nap mats
Bedding
Playpens
Portable Cribs
Toys
Books
Child-sized Tables and Chairs (Set)
Diaper Disposal Containers
Step stools
Potty Training Chairs
Qty
0
0
0
6
15
15
15
30
30
3
3
1
1
7
2
5
5
Unit
EA
LS
LS
EA
EA
EA
EA
EA
EA
EA
EA
LS
LS
EA
EA
EA
EA
Cost
$0
$0
$0
$75
$20
$75
$40
$25
$15
$150
$150
$200
$200
$100
$40
$30
$25
TOTAL
Total
$0
$0
$0
$450
$300
$1,125
$600
$750
$450
$450
$450
$200
$200
$700
$80
$150
$125
$6,030
Figure 2. Monthly Operating Costs for Onsite Child Care
Item
Qty
Arts and Crafts Supplies
1
Disposable Changing Pads (36 Count Box)
50
Cleaning Products
1
Diapers (Economy Pack)
5
Meals for 30 Children
1
Caregivers (Salary and Benefits)
6
Unit
LS
EA
LS
EA
LS
EA
Cost
$200
$15
$75
$40
$2,700
$1,728
TOTAL
Total
$200
$750
$75
$200
$2,700
$10,368
$14,293
202
Sample: Process Description
This sample was prepared for SFSU TPW 480, Writing Technical
Documentation. Details for this course are as follows:
Description
This course focuses on design and development of standard types of technical
documentation, such as project plans, process descriptions, procedures, tutorials, and
usability tests. Topics include: audience analysis, writing style, and best practices.
Assignment Details
This assignment involved writing a process description for how to use my cell phone.
San Francisco State University
Technical and Professional Writing Program
TPW 480
To
From
Date
Dr. Bob Dvorak
Lisa Romanoski
October 5, 2009
Subject
Process Description for How to Use my Cell Phone
The target audience is anyone who wants to borrow my cell phone.
Abstract
This process description describes how to use my cell phone, an LG Venus, and is intended for
friends and family familiar with cell phone usage. The LG Venus is a slider phone that has a
hidden key pad beneath a touch screen that slides up and down. All functions require the use of
both a traditional key pad and function menus accessible only by touching the screen. The phone
has many features, including messaging, voice mail, internet access, a music player, and gaming.
This process description focuses on how to use the phone to make a call, send a text message,
and access the internet.
Process
Phone Calls: When a user first holds the phone, the screen will be turned off because the phone
is trying to save battery power. To activate the phone to place a call, a user presses the upper
unlock button on the right side of the phone. This button is also labeled “Music.”
Once activated, the phone display shows a two-part screen. The upper half is a display screen,
and the lower half is a menu screen used to navigate to various functions. The menu screen
displays these touch buttons: “Message,” “Contacts,” “Shortcut,” and “All Calls.” This is the
standard default display of the phone before a function is executed.
To place a call, a user must slide the screen up to reveal the key pad. The user enters a phone
number using the key pad and then must touch “Call” at the bottom left of the screen. The call is
ended by touching “End” on the screen or sliding the screen down.
Text Messaging: For text messaging, the user must slide the screen up to access the key pad and
touch “Message” on the menu screen. The display screen then lists the following options: 1 Text Message, 2 - Picture Message, or 3 - Video Message. The user selects one of these three
items by pressing the corresponding number on the key pad.
Process Description, Continued
Page 2
After selecting the message type, the user enters a phone number with the key pad in one of
several lines displayed on the screen. The menu screen shows “123,” “Add,” “Back,” and
“Contacts.” An “Ok” button is located in the middle of the menu functions screen with four
navigation arrows on all sides: up, down, left, and right. A user presses either the “Ok” button or
the down arrow to begin typing in the text box after entering a phone number.
The “123” button can be used to add words, lower- and uppercase text, and symbols. “Add”
allows a user to add a phone number from the contacts list, a recent phone call, or a previouslydefined group. “Contacts” lists contact information for friends, family, and colleagues. “Back”
allows a user to return to the previous screen.
Once the user has navigated to the text box area, he or she will type a message using the key pad.
There are three letters per key on the key pad. A user presses the key until the letter he or she
wants appears on the screen. The user can access symbols and numbers through the “Abc” button
in the upper left corner of the menu display screen. When a user presses this button, six options
are displayed on the screen: 1 - Word, 2 - Abc, 3 - ABC, 4 - 123, 5 - Symbols, and 6 - Quick
Text. The user selects an option by pressing the corresponding number on the key pad.
After typing the message, the user touches “Send” in the middle of the screen to send the
message. The screen displays “Message Sent” when the message is sent successfully. The phone
then displays the initial start screen.
Internet Access: To access the internet, a user selects “Menu” from the touch screen. The screen
displays “My Music,” “Get It Now,” “ Messaging,” “ Contacts,” “Recent Calls,” and “Settings
and Tools.” The user would navigate to “Get It Now” using the up and down arrows in the menu
screen and pressing the “Ok” button. From the display, the user would choose “News and Info”
by using the navigation arrows and pressing “Ok” or selecting the corresponding number, 4.
Upon activation, the phone begins an internet connection. The user may choose from news,
email, entertainment, sports, weather, and search functions by using the key pad to select a
number corresponding to an item on the display screen. The user may also use the navigation
arrows to highlight a selection. The selection is activated by pressing the “Ok” button.
To exit an internet session, a user presses the “Clr” button on the key pad. This returns the user
to the initial start screen.
Conclusion
The process description described herein explains how to use my LG Venus cellular phone to
make a phone call, send a text message, or browse the internet. With a state-of-the-art touch
screen, this cellular phone is easy to use and allows for quick navigation for a variety of features.
205
Sample: Documentation Plan for an SOP
This sample was prepared for SFSU TPW 480. Course description
and goals are here.
Assignment Details
This assignment involved writing a documentation plan for a standard operating
procedure.
San Francisco State University
Technical and Professional Writing Program
TPW 480
To
From
Date
Dr. Bob Dvorak
Lisa Romanoski
October 12, 2009
Subject
Documentation Plan for Data Management Standard Operating Procedure
Purpose
I propose to write a standard operating procedure (SOP) for clinical trial data
management. The purpose of the SOP is to provide guidance for managing data
and ensuring clinical trial data are collected, verified, and analyzed in compliance
with the most current United States Department of Human Services, Food and
Drug Administration (FDA), standards and guidance.
The SOP will include guidance on:
п‚· Source documentation and retention
п‚· Computer access
п‚· Audit trails, date and time stamps
п‚· External security safeguards
п‚· Data entry, retrieval, and processing
п‚· Backup procedures
п‚· Data protection
The SOP will be written using the template provided on the I-Learn site for
Technical and Professional Writing (TPW) 480. The revision history within this
template will be used to track SOP drafts.
Audience
The target audience is clinical trial personnel authorized to enter, process, and/or
retrieve clinical trial data.
Resources
To meet documentation requirements, I need the following:
п‚· Internet access for research
п‚· General information on overall clinical trial practice
п‚· General information on commercial data management software
п‚· Most current FDA standards/guidance
п‚· Most current International Conference on Harmonisation (ICH) of Good
Clinical Practice standards/guidance
п‚· My personal computer
п‚· Microsoft Word on my personal computer
п‚· October 19, 2009, peer review comments
п‚· November 2, 2009, instructor review comments
L. Romanoski, Memo on SOP
Page 2
Budget
Budget is not applicable to this particular project.
Deliverables
Documentation Plan for Procedure on October 12, 2009
Draft I Procedure on October 19, 2009
Draft II Procedure on November 2, 2009
Final Procedure on November 30, 2009
Contingencies
Final submission of SOP is contingent on receipt of peer and instructor
review comments by November 9, 2009. Anticipated delays in the
schedule will be communicated to Dr. Dvorak via email at least two days
prior to each deliverable date.
208
Sample: Standard Operating Procedure
This sample was prepared for SFSU TPW 480. Course description
and goals are here. The purpose for including it in my
portfolio is to demonstrate competency in writing standard
operating procedures.
Assignment Details
The purpose of writing this document was to demonstrate ability to write standard
operating procedures and work with standardized forms.
Standard Operating Procedure
For
Data Management
SOP FD-001
Release 3
Page 1 of 12
Standard Operating Procedure for
Data Management
FD-001, Release 3
SOP Scope:
Poe Biotechnology Data Management Standards
Functional Group:
Data Management
Author:
Lisa Romanoski
Document Supersedes:
N/A
Approved by:
Name
Approval Date
В«approved_by
В»
В«approval_dateВ»
В«approved_by_1
В»
В«approval_date_1В»
В«approved_by_2
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Standard Operating Procedure
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I. Purpose
This Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) describes the procedure for managing data and ensuring
clinical trial data are collected, verified, and analyzed in compliance with the most current United
States Department of Human Services, Food and Drug Administration (FDA) standards and
guidance. This SOP is needed to ensure that Poe Biotechnology follows proper protocol in recording
clinical trial study data in pursuit of FDA drug approval.
II. Scope
This SOP references the Poe Biotechnology Data Management Standards and the FDA’s guidance
and regulations on computerized systems and electronic records and signatures. This SOP covers
source documentation and retention; the data management process; databases; external security
safeguards; computer access; data entry, processing, and validation; data protection; audit trails, date
and time stamps; and electronic record backup and recovery. This procedure is to be read by
Principal Investigators, the Data Manager, and data entry clerks.
III. responsibility
1.1
1.2
Principal Investigators (PIs) are responsible for:
1.1.1
The conduct of the clinical trial at a trial site.
1.1.2
The team of individuals at the trial site.
1.1.3
Execution of the trial as outlined in the clinical trial contract.
1.1.4
Reporting project progress as outlined in the clinical trial contract.
1.1.5
Informing study subjects of the nature of the trial and risk factors.
1.1.6
Comply with all Poe Biotechnology policies and procedures related to clinical trials and
project management.
1.1.7
Comply with all sponsor rules, regulations, and terms and conditions of the clinical trial
contract.
1.1.8
Comply with all FDA inquiries, audits, site inspections, and requests for information.
The Data Manager (DM) is responsible for:
1.2.1
Overseeing the completeness, accuracy and internal consistency of the data for the
trial.
1.2.2
Performing computer database operation system checks.
1.2.3
Training and education for data entry clerks and others who will use the database.
1.2.4
Protection and appropriate use of electronic signatures.
1.2.5
Provision of computer log-in access codes to data entry clerks and other authorized
individuals.
1.2.6
Generation of data tabulations, profiles, and listing to support other medical and clinical
colleagues with the monitoring and review of the data.
1.2.7
Generation of status reports to inform the study management team of study progress.
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1.2.8
Keeping the study management team fully and promptly updated on the status of data
flow and data quality through the lifecycle of the clinical trial/disease registry.
1.2.9
The creation of the Case Report Form (CRF) and oversight for the user testing of the
clinical database which is created from the CRF.
1.2.10 The completeness, accuracy, and internal consistency of all clinical data collected in
the trial, including laboratory safety data and data from ancillary data sources such as
academic labs, electrocardiograms (ECGs), pharmacokinetic (PK) data, etc.
1.2.11 Ensuring that patient data are clean and complete in preparation for any agreed
reporting event.
1.2.12 Ensuring all coded items in the study are promptly and consistently coded.
1.2.13 Locking of the data in the study/registry, finalizing the applicable documentation in
accordance with relevant SOPS, and overseeing the archiving of documentation and
clinical data.
1.3
Data entry clerks are responsible for:
1.3.1
Ensuring that all study data are processed and validated in accordance with study
guidelines.
1.3.2
Entering data from reports and clinical study documents into the electronic tracking
system.
1.3.3
Scanning documents and verifying data entry work to ensure accuracy.
IV. Associated Forms
1.4
Case Report Form
1.5
Discrepancy Form
V. Definitions
1.6
A case report form (CRF) is a printed or electronic document specifically designed to record
observations of study participants.
1.7
A discrepancy form is used by the DM in his or her review of CRFs to note missing data,
incomplete fields, or data outside the normal ranges. This form may also be used by the DM to
note any unauthorized entries into the secure computer work room. Discrepancy forms are
submitted to the PI for review and/or resolution.
1.8
Essential documents are documents that fall into three groups according to the stage of the trial
during which they are generated:
1.9
1.8.1
Before the clinical phase of the trial commences
1.8.2
During the clinical conduct of the trial
1.8.3
After completion or termination of the trial
Before-trial documents include:
1.9.1
Investigator’s brochure
1.9.2
Signed protocol and amendments
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1.9.3
Informed consent forms, any other written information, and advertisement for subject
recruitment
1.9.4
Financial records
1.9.5
Insurance statement
1.9.6
Signed agreements between involved parties
1.9.7
All documentation pertaining to Independent Review Board/Independent Ethics
Committee (IRB/IEC) review and approvals
1.9.8
IRB/IEC composition
1.9.9
Regulatory authority(is) authorization/approval/notification of protocol
1.9.10 CVs and other documents evidencing qualifications of investigators and
subinvestigators
1.9.11 Normal value(s)/range(s) for medical/laboratory/technical procedure(s) and/or test(s)
included in the protocol
1.9.12 Certifications of facilities to perform required test(s) and support reliability of results
1.9.13 Sample of label(s) attached to investigational product(s) and trial-related materials
1.9.14 Certificate(s) of analysis of investigational product(s) shipped
1.9.15 Decoding procedures for blinded trials
1.9.16 Master randomization list
1.9.17 Pretrial monitoring report
1.9.18 Trial initiation monitoring report
1.10 During-trial documents include:
1.10.1 Investigator’s brochure updates
1.10.2 Any revisions to CRFs, informed consent forms, any written information provided to
subjects, and advertisements for subject recruitment
1.10.3 Correspondence from IRBs
1.10.4 Regulatory authorizations for protocol amendments
1.10.5 CVs for new investigators or subinvestigators
1.10.6 Updates to normal values/ranges
1.10.7 Updates of procedures/tests
1.10.8 Documentation of shipments
1.10.9 Letters, meeting notes, and telephone call notes
1.10.10 Signed informed consent forms
1.10.11 Source documents
1.10.12 Signed, dated, and completed CRFs
1.10.13 Documentation of CRF corrections
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1.10.14 Notification by PI to sponsor of serious adverse events and related reports
1.10.15 Notification by sponsor and/or PI to regulatory authority(ies) and IRBs/IECs of serious
adverse drug reactions and other safety information
1.10.16 Notification by sponsor to PI of safety information; interim or annual reports to IRC/IEC
and authority(ies)
1.10.17 Subject enrollment log(s)
1.10.18 Investigational product(s) accountability at the site
1.10.19 Signature sheet
1.10.20 Record of retained body fluids/tissue samples
1.11 After-trial documents include:
1.11.1 Investigation product accountability at the site
1.11.2 Documentation of investigational product(s) destruction
1.11.3 Completed subject identification code list
1.11.4 Audit certificate
1.11.5 Final trial close-out monitoring report
1.11.6 Treatment allocation and decoding documentation
1.11.7 Final report by PI to IRB/IEC and regulatory authority(ies)
1.11.8 Clinical study report
1.12 Protected Personal Information is any patient identifiable data or any information that can
directly or indirectly lead to the identification of a living person, such as an individual's name,
address, e-mail, telephone number, license number, medical identification number, photograph,
or other identifying characteristic. The identification can occur by reference to one or more
factors specific to the individual's physical, physiological, mental, economic, cultural or social
identity. Personal information does not include information that has been anonymized, encoded
or otherwise stripped of its identifiers, or information that is publicly available, unless combined
with other non-public personal information.
1.13 Relevant records are written procedures, membership lists, lists of occupations/affiliations of
members, submitted documents, minutes of meetings, and correspondence.
1.14 Source data is all information in original records and certified copies of original records of
clinical findings, observations, or other activities in a clinical trial necessary for the
reconstruction and evaluation of the trial.
1.15 Source documents are original documents, data, and records, including:
1.15.1 Hospital records
1.15.2 Clinical and office charts
1.15.3 Laboratory notes
1.15.4 Memoranda
1.15.5 Subjects' diaries or evaluation checklists
1.15.6 Pharmacy dispensing records
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1.15.7 Recorded data from automated instruments
1.15.8 Copies or transcriptions certified after verification as being accurate and complete
1.15.9 Microfiches, photographic negatives, microfilm or magnetic media, and x-rays
1.15.10 Subject files
1.15.11 Records kept at the pharmacy, at the laboratories, and at medico-technical
departments involved in the clinical trial
VI. references
1.16 FDA, 21 CFR 11, “Electronic Records, Electronic Signatures; Final Rule.” Federal Register Vol.
62, No. 54, 13429, March 20, 1997.
1.17 FDA, Compliance Program Guidance Manual, “Compliance Program 7348.810 – Bioresearch
Monitoring – Sponsors, Contract Research Organizations and Monitors,” February 21, 2001.
1.18 FDA, Computerized Systems Used in Clinical Investigations, May 2007.
1.19 FDA, E6 Good Clinical Practice: Consolidated Guidance, ICH, April 1996.
1.20 FDA, General Principles of Software Validation; Final Guidance for Industry and FDA Staff,
January 11, 2002.
1.21 FDA, Guideline for the Monitoring of Clinical Investigations, January 1998.
1.22 FDA, Part 11, Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures – Scope and Application, August 2003
(Lists other documents referred to, appropriate regulations, and/or sources of information
relevant to the SOP.)
VII.
Safety
These safety measures apply to all personnel who use computers for data management tasks.
Working on a computer for long periods of time can cause inflammation of tendons, nerve sheaths
and ligaments and damage to soft tissues. Neck and shoulder pain and stiffness can occur from
improper placement of the computer monitor, mouse or document you are working from. If these
items are not placed correctly, the muscles of your neck and shoulders are constantly working to
keep the head and arms in an awkward position. Phone use while keying can also contribute to neck
and shoulder pain from cradling the phone to your ear.
1.23 Position of the wrist must be neutral, or straight. In order to achieve a neutral position, the
keyboard needs to be placed so the arms bend at approximately a 90-degree angle.
1.24 Avoid resting the wrist or forearm on a hard surface while keying. This is called contact stress
and must be avoided.
1.25 Your line of vision should hit the top of the monitor, the mouse should be next to the keyboard
at the same height, and a document holder should be used to make sure paperwork is at the
same distance, angle and height as the monitor.
1.26 Arrange the computer equipment in a straight line so you are not twisting your back.
1.27 To reduce telephone related muscle stress, use the speaker function or purchase a headset.
1.28 Chairs should be adjusted so the feet can be placed squarely on the ground or a footrest.
1.29 To reduce glare, tilt the screen down slightly so that that overhead lighting does not hit the
screen. Place monitors at right angles to windows so glare does not hit the screen or the user’s
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eyes. Use blinds or curtains for controlling sunlight glare. Reduce room lighting to half-normal
office levels and use task lighting for paper work and other tasks.
1.30 Take breaks by looking away from the screen for ten seconds, or do other work and give your
eyes a rest.
VIII.
Data Management
1.31 Process
1.31.1 The data management process involves evaluating data collected using CRFs. CRFs
are transferred into electronic format to allow statistical analysis to be conducted.
1.32 Databases
1.32.1 Once the CRF has been designed and approved in accordance with the protocol and
has been approved, the PI (or delegated individual(s)) will set up a new trial database
using Oracle Clinical. Oracle Clinical will be used to enter clinical data, monitor trial
progress, and track source document verification.
1.33 External Security Safeguards
1.33.1 All authorized users and data entry clerks will obtain individual security work badges
and key codes from the DM.
1.33.2 Security work badges must be worn at all times and displayed in one of three visible
locations: on a chain worn round the neck, attached to a lapel, or attached to a belt
loop. Do not cover the badge with clothing.
1.33.3 The key code must be entered to access the room containing the secure computer
work stations. The security system will electronically tag each entry and exit with a date
and time stamp.
1.33.4 Security cameras in the hallway and within the work room will monitor entry and exit at
all times. These cameras will be monitored 24 hours a day and 7 days a week by
security personnel, who will be looking for clearly displayed security badges.
1.33.5 Do not allow unauthorized personnel into the work room. Security personnel will retain
any individuals caught entering the room without security work badges.
1.33.6 Do not download data onto any portable electronic device, including laptops, cell
phones, CDs, or USB portable flash drives.
1.33.7 Data may be downloaded only into secure project folders within the network.
Downloads must be consistent with current project tasks, such as statistical analysis.
1.33.8 The DM will download weekly a list of entry and exit date and time stamps for all key
codes entered into the key pad. The DM will verify the key codes belong to authorized
users and data entry clerks.
1.33.9 The DM will also download weekly a database activity report. This report will show
computer login and logout information, date and time stamps, and any downloads that
may have taken place during the work week. The DM will check that data downloads
are consistent with the project schedule and work tasks.
1.33.10 The DM will note all database activity and any data downloads in a weekly memo to the
PI. This memo will be emailed to the PI no later than 9 AM every Monday morning of
the subsequent work week.
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1.34 Computer Access
1.34.1 Obtain computer log-in access codes and passwords from the DM.
1.34.2 Only log in to secure computer work stations.
1.34.3 Only one individual will enter CRF data.
1.34.4 Data entry will be entered as seen on the CRF without interpretation or modification.
1.34.5 Log out immediately after completion of tasks.
1.34.6 Obtain print-out sheet from adjacent printer that shows the data and time of log-in and
log-out.
1.35 Data Entry
1.35.1 The CRF is given to the DM, who will date, stamp, and review the form for any missing
data, incomplete fields, or data outside normal ranges.
1.35.2 If there is missing data, incomplete fields, or data outside the normal ranges, the DM
will submit the original CRF and a data discrepancy form explaining the issue to the PI
by the end of that work day. The PI will investigate the matter and provide a data
correction sheet to the DM within two weeks from date of submission of memo. The
DM will then give the CRF and correction sheet to the data entry clerk for entry into the
database. The DM will also record all corrections in the case files.
1.35.3 Upon completion of this process, log in to the database using a designated, secured
computer work station.
1.35.4 Enter the data.
1.35.5 Apply coding to patient procedures using the Current Procedure Terminology (CPT)
procedure codes.
1.35.6 After entering data, perform a visual check to compare what was recorded on paper
CRF and what was entered on the screen. You may go to any screen while still logged
in to re-enter data.
1.35.7 Log out of the database immediately following data entry.
1.36 Data Processing
1.36.1 Obtain the data processing assignment from the PI.
1.36.2 Log in to a designated, secure computer work station.
1.36.3 Perform the assignment, keeping data secure and confidential at all times.
1.36.4 Log off the computer work station immediately after processing.
1.37 Data Validation
1.37.1 Data validation ensures the most accurate validated data set is provided for statistical
analysis. Data validation will be completed at three stages during the trial: when CRFs
are completed by the PI; when data are entered into the database by data clerks; and
when data have been entered and are available for the data manager.
1.37.2 When CRFs have been completed by the PI:
1.37.2.1
Independent monitors will perform data validation in this case.
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1.37.2.2
The independent monitors will obtain the original patient’s records.
1.37.2.3
Compare the records to the data entered into the CRFs.
1.37.2.4
If discrepancies are noted, fill out a discrepancy form.
1.37.2.5
Submit the discrepancy form to the PI and the DM.
1.37.2.6
The PI and DM will both initial and date the change on the CRF.
1.37.2.7
The DM will then assign a data entry clerk to make the change in the
database.
1.37.3 When data have been entered in the database by data entry clerks:
1.37.3.1
The automated Check Program will be activated when data clerks are
entering data at all times. The Check Program is the database software’s own
internal check for invalid data entries. It will provide warnings to the data entry
clerks when values are entered outside of the expected range, or if the type of
values entered is incorrect, e.g., a numeric value is entered rather than text.
Alerts are also set up for missing values.
1.37.3.2
Data clerks will log in to the work station to run the database software’s
automated Check Program.
1.37.3.3
Log off the system immediately.
1.37.4 When data have been entered and are available for the DM:
1.37.4.1
At this stage of the trial, post-entry computer tests will be run.
1.37.4.2
A data clerk will log on to a secure work station.
1.37.4.3
The data clerk will print use the database software’s Print Report function
to print a hard copy report of the current database entries.
1.37.4.4
The data clerk will confirm that the report lists any missing values or
values outside the pre-defined range. If the data has been entered correctly,
the report will state “No errors.”
1.37.4.5
Log off the system immediately.
1.37.4.6
Provide the report to the DM.
1.38 Data Protection
1.38.1 The DM will review trial data. If the data meets the definition of Protected Personal
Information (PPI), the DM will stamp each data set prior to distributing to the data entry
clerks. The stamp mark will be red, read “PPI,” and appear in the upper right corner of
the first page of a data set. Paper CRFs are considered PPI and will be marked as
such by the DM.
1.38.2 The database management system will be password protected.
1.38.3 Passwords will be generated and provided by the DM.
1.38.4 Only the PI, the DM, and data entry clerks will be assigned passwords.
1.38.5 Each individual assigned a password is responsible for adhering to all ethical codes of
conduct and Poe Biotechnology’s requirements described herein for data protection
and privacy.
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1.38.6 PPI will not be accessed via remote access or synchronization facilities which copy the
data and store them locally on the machine/device from which it is accessed, unless
the machine is fully encrypted to Protect 4.0 standard or the machine/device is kept
within Poe Biotechnology’s premises at all times and lock away when not in use, not
left unattended whilst in use, and not used in a public access area.
1.38.7 PPI and paper CRFs will be kept in locked filing cabinets in the locked central filing
room, which is only accessible to authorized personnel with key code access.
1.38.7.1
The DM will download weekly an entry and exit activity report for the
filing room. This report will show the key codes entered with date and time
stamps. The DM will check the key codes with a list of authorized users for the
file room. The DM will submit this information in his or her weekly memo to the
PI.
1.38.7.2
If the DM finds unauthorized key code entries into the room, the DM will
contact security personnel immediately with the name of the individual
assigned that key code. If the staff member is on site, security personnel will
retain the individual for questioning. If the staff member is off site, security
personnel will retain the individual when he or she returns to the Poe
Biotechnology campus.
1.38.7.3
The DM will also submit a discrepancy form with the unauthorized key
code entries to the PI by the end of that work day. The PI will investigate the
matter and provide a resolution memo to the DM within one week from receipt
of the discrepancy form. The resolution memo will state the problem, the data
encountered, and the type of corrective action taken. The discrepancy form
and resolution memo will be kept on file in the file room in the “Security Check”
files.
1.38.8 If PPI and paper CRFs are required to be transferred to a coordinating center or the
sponsor’s center for data entry, they will be sent by courier.
1.38.9 A log will always be maintained of documents sent and received at each center
involved.
1.38.10 If electronic data transfer is used, this will be done with a secure work station,
password protection, and encryption using the Protect 4.0 software.
1.38.11 If the data is transferred via email, do not include the password in the email. Utilize a
courier to send a hard copy letter with the password.
1.38.12 If electronic CRFS or any other PPI data needs to be transferred or stored offsite using
removable media such as laptops, smart phones, CDs, or USB drives, the DM will
assign a Poe Biotechnology media device to each authorized user. The DM will encrypt
the device(s) with Protect 4.0 software. Upon completing the encryption process, the
DM will print out a proof of encryption certificate from the device. This certificate will be
stored in the employee’s personnel file in the file room.
1.38.13 The transferred material on the removable media must be deleted by the staff member
as soon as transfer has occurred successfully. The staff member will print out a
deletion receipt using the Protect 4.0 software on the laptop or smart phone and submit
the receipt to the DM upon return to the office. The DM will store deletion receipts in
the employee’s personnel file in the file room. If a CD or USB drive was used, the staff
member must submit those devices to the DM upon return to the office. The DM will
use an independent contractor certified in document protection to destroy CDs. The
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DM will erase the information on a USB drive. The DM will then write and sign a memo
certifying that the USB drive information has been erased. This memo will be appended
to the weekly memo to the PI. A copy of this memo will also be filed in the employee’s
personnel file in the file room.
1.39 Audit Trails, Date and Time Stamps
1.39.1 The computer database software records the date, time, and user id of each
transaction completed by data entry clerks and other authorized users.
1.39.2 The DM will schedule monthly audit checks with Poe Biotechnology’s Quality
Assurance/Control (QA/QC) Department.
1.39.3 The QA/QC Department will run monthly audit checks using Datawatch’s Monarch Pro
Software.
1.39.4 The QA/QC Department will submit the print-outs from the audit checks to the PI after
completion of each audit.
1.39.5 The PI and the DM will review the results of each audit.
1.39.6 If discrepancies are found from the audit, including any discrepancies associate with
date, time, and user id stamps, the PI and the DM will create a corrective action plan.
1.39.7 The corrective action plan will forwarded to the CEO and the IRB/IEEB.
1.39.8 The DM is responsible for execution of the corrective action plan.
1.39.9 The DM will meet with the PI one week from plan implementation to ensure all
corrective actions have been enforced.
1.40 Electronic Record Backup and Recovery
1.40.1 The DM is responsible for electronic data backup and recovery.
1.40.2 The DM will utilize a subcontract with the company Barracuda Networks for data
backup and recovery.
1.40.3 The DM will ensure that a Barracuda Backup Server is installed on site.
1.40.4 The DM will ensure that the Barracuda Backup Service sends data to one of two
secure data centers via the internet using an encrypted IP tunnel. Before data is
transmitted, it will be encrypted and then compressed for transfer and remote storage
efficiency. The key to unlock those parts is in turn also encrypted.
1.40.5 The DM will ensure that replication can occur between the two data centers. All data
must be mirrored from one to the other and accessed from either.
1.40.6 The DM will recover records, if needed, using Barracuda Networks’ recovery system.
This system allows for backup device management through an internet interface, the
Barracuda Restore Tool, WebDAV, and FTP.
1.40.7 If the DM cannot use the local backup server due to loss or equipment failure, the DM
will contact Barracuda Networks and request a server and/or hard drive replacement
with the loaded data via standard shipping methods.
1.40.8 The DM will document all backup and recovery tasks in logs that are maintained in the
archive room.
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IX. documentation
Completed CRFs ready for database entry will be kept in the Poe Biotechnology central filing room.
The completed CRFs will be placed in the data entry mailbox slot in this room. As this is a secure
room, data entry clerks must obtain authorization and a computerized access code from the PI. All
access codes are unique to the individual assigned.
X. history
Release No.
Effective Date
1
2
10/19/09
11/2/09
3
12/7/09
XI. Attachments
1.41 Case Report Form
1.42 Discrepancy Form
Reason/Justification for Change
New Draft for Peer Review
Teacher Review Draft (Changes from Peer and Personal review include
adding definitions, adding steps, and re-organizing scope sections.)
Final Draft (Changes from Teacher and Personal Review include adding
verification for steps in Sections 8.2, 8.3, 8.5, 8.7, and 8.8)
221
Sample: Documentation Plan for Tutorial
This sample was prepared for SFSU TPW 480. Course description
and goals are here. The purpose for including it in my portfolio
is to demonstrate competency in writing documentation plans.
Assignment Details
The purpose of writing this document was to write a documentation plan. This
assignment is part one of a three part project that focused on writing technical
documentation. The program featured in this project is SnagIT, a real tool available from
Techsmith.com.
San Francisco State University
Technical and Professional Writing Program
TPW 480
To
From
Date
Dr. Bob Dvorak
Lisa Romanoski
November 16, 2009
Subject
Documentation Plan for Snagit 9.1.3 Tutorial
Purpose/
Audience
I propose to write a tutorial for Snagit 9.1.3, a PC-based screen shot capture
tool. The tutorial will be a Microsoft Power Point Presentation. The tutorial
will teach new, entry-level technical writers to perform and retain the
knowledge of how to perform the following tasks:
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
Capture, resize, and store several standard window screen shots. File
storage instruction will focus on grouping project-related files for ease
of retrieval by current and future project team members.
Capture and store a series of related scrolling web pages.
Create a short “screen cam” video of a series of menu selections and
actions.
I anticipate writing two drafts and a final version of the tutorial. Only one
draft will be submitted for review by the client. Revision history will be noted
on the documents submitted for review.
Resources
To meet documentation requirements, I need the following:
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
п‚·
Budget
My personal computer
Internet access for research
Snagit 9.1.3 free trial software, available from CNET internet site
Microsoft Word and Power Point on my personal computer
A printer
Snagit Tutorial Usability Test Plan results
December 7, 2009, instructor review comments
Budget is not applicable to this particular project.
L. Romanoski, Memo on Snagit 9.1.3 Tutorial
Page 2
Deliverables
Documentation Plan for Tutorial on November 16, 2009
Usability Test Plan for Tutorial on November 30, 2009
Draft I Tutorial on December 7, 2009
Usability Report on Tutorial on December 14, 2009
Final Tutorial on December 14, 2009
Contingencies
Final submission of the tutorial is contingent on receipt of peer and instructor
review comments by December 14, 2009. Anticipated delays in the schedule
will be communicated to Dr. Dvorak via email at least two days prior to each
deliverable date.
224
Sample: Usability Test Plan and Results
This sample was prepared for SFSU TPW 480. Course description
and goals are here.
Assignment Details
The purpose of writing this document was to write a usability test plan. This assignment
is part two of a three part project.
San Francisco State University
Technical and Professional Writing Program
TPW 480
To
From
Date
Dr. Bob Dvorak
Lisa Romanoski
December 7, 2009
Subject
Snagit 9.1.3 Tutorial Usability Test Plan
The Snagit 9.1.3 Tutorial will teach entry-level technical writers in the Poe and Associates
Publications Department how to capture, resize, crop, and store computer window screen shots.
The tutorial will be a Microsoft Power Point presentation with tasks to be completed for each
section. The writers will also learn how to capture and store a series of scrolling web pages. The
third part of the tutorial will focus on creation of a short “screen cam” video of a series of menu
selections and actions. The tutorial goal is retention of the material so that the writers can return
to their work and start using the product after completing the tutorial.
The following is a usability test plan to test the initial section of the tutorial: completing a
standard screen capture. The goal of the usability test is to assess whether the tester can
understand and successfully execute a screen capture using the tutorial in less than 20 minutes.
User Profile
The anticipated user of the Snagit program is an entry-level technical writer who has experience
and is comfortable performing a variety of tasks with PCs but has never used Snagit. To simulate
the experience of this entry-level writer, a tester will be used who is familiar with PCs but not
necessarily advanced or expert at using them.
Testing and Evaluation Measures
As the author of the tutorial, I will conduct the usability test and evaluate of the tester. I will
provide the tester with my laptop, which has the Snagit program installed on it. I will also give
the tester an actual draft of the screen capture portion of the tutorial. I will ask the tester to go
through the steps using the draft tutorial and the program. As the tester works, I will be noting
the following:
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How the tester approaches and initially interacts with the tutorial, computer, and program
Step repetition, errors, and re-reading of the tutorial or parts of the tutorial
Usefulness of the graphics to the tester
Length of time needed to execute the task
What the subject was actually able to capture
Any comments and complaints made by the tester during the process
Usability Test Plan, Continued
Page 2
Upon completion of the test, I will interview the tester for additional details on the listed items. I
will also have the tester write down any comments he or she may have directly on the draft
tutorial.
Report Contents/Format
Test observations, results, and interview responses will be compiled into a test report. The goal
of the test report is to summarize the findings and then make recommendations for fixing
problem areas, improving the tutorial, and re-designing the layout if necessary. While the test
focuses on only one section of the tutorial, I anticipate that the test results can be applied to other
sections. The tutorial will need to be re-designed if the tester fails to execute the task within 20
minutes or needs to re-do all the steps after making an error halfway through the task.
San Francisco State University
Technical and Professional Writing Program
TPW 480
To
From
Date
Dr. Bob Dvorak
Lisa Romanoski
December 7, 2009
Subject
Snagit 9.1.3 Tutorial Usability Test Results
Usability Test
I conducted a usability test on December 1st using my friend Molly as a test subject. The goal of
the test was to determine if Molly could execute a standard screen capture in less than 20
minutes. Molly was provided with the first two pages of my first tutorial draft. The first page
lists the steps to perform a screen capture and shows the user graphics of the Snagit screen and
Capture icon. The second page discusses next steps after executing a screen capture and defines
Editor options. Molly executed a screen capture in less than 2 minutes. Molly took about 15
minutes to read through the second page. I then asked her questions about what she found
confusing or could be rewritten for clarification.
As she was executing the task, I was observing Molly for her initial approach to the tutorial and
my PC lap top. Molly is a copy editor and journalist and works primarily on Macs. I was also
looking to see if Molly would repeat a step, re-read the section, or make any errors.
Findings
The test when better than expected, as Molly executed the screen capture almost immediately.
She approached the task with enthusiasm and curiosity. Molly pointed out that the last step on
the first page was either out of sequence or could possibly be omitted. This step explained how to
cancel out of the screen capture execution process after pressing the Capture icon button. She
also found my note on arranging the appearance of a file before the screen capture execution
confusing. This note appeared at the end of the screen capture task. In general she found the
screen capture execution task easy to follow.
The second page contained commentary on the Editor and no sequence of steps in an executable
task. It did not contain any graphics of the Editor window. It took Molly longer than I anticipated
to read the section. She found some of the definitions of the Editor tabs to be confusing or too
wordy. She also wanted to follow along in the reading of the definitions by opening the Editor
window and clicking on the various tabs. Molly recommended including some graphics and
providing more details. We both agreed that the section could benefit from a subheading such as
“Becoming Familiar with the Editor.”
Usability Test Plan Results, Continued
Page 2
Conclusion and Next Steps for Tutorial Draft II
I provided Molly with a very rough first draft of the tutorial and was pleased to see that she
executed the task successfully in the 20-minute time frame. I wasn’t surprised that she found the
second page confusing. As I wrote it, I wasn’t sure exactly what I wanted to say and the order in
which I wanted to present the information. I had also intended to include some graphics to aid in
understanding the descriptions, but they never made it into the first draft.
For my second draft, I intend to revise all areas that she commented on during our conversation.
As my first draft is very simplistic, I will continue to write and enhance all sections with
additional discussion and graphics. I would like to link the tasks to actual work place scenarios to
show how the program is useful and to also develop an enthusiasm among readers.
229
Sample: Tutorial
This sample was prepared for SFSU TPW 480. Course description
and goals are here.
Assignment Details
The purpose of writing this document was to write tutorial. This assignment is part three
of a three part project.
Copyright 2009 Poe and Associates, Inc. All rights reserved.
Snagit Screen
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Capture profiles
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Profile Settings and Capture Button
Snagit Profile = Capture Mode + Input + Effects + Output
Snagit Tools
Snagit Ribbon
Search Pane
Snagit Editor
Tools
Quick Access Toolbar
Snagit Button: Click
here to open, save, or
print.
Dialogue Box Launcher:
Click here to see more
options
Open Captures Tray:
The tray holds your most recent captures.
Collapse the Search Pane:
Click your mouse here to collapse the
search pane or make it visible.
Snagit Library:
Locate, manage, and
view captures and
multimedia files.
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Snagit Ribbon
Draw:
Annotate a
capture.
Image:
Add special
effects, crop,
rotate, and
resize.
Draw tab with a
group of clipboard
options: copy, paste,
cut.
Hotspots:
Create
interactive spots
to link to a web
page or display
a pop-up text
box.
Tags:
Assign keywords
to your captures
or use Flag icons
to categorize
your capture.
View:
Pan and
zoom.
Send:
Send your capture to email, Word,
Excel, or PowerPoint.
Image Tab
Crop, trim, resize, or
rotate you captures.
Hotspots Tab
Add edge effects to your
captures.
Select a color for the Shape
(Hotspot) and text popup border
and background.
Drag a Shape onto your capture. Connect that shape to a
web address in Link to. Use Tooltip to enter text that
appears when you hover over your Shape (Hotspot) with a
mouse.
Select all Shapes (Hotspots)
and/or remove (delete) them.
Use Modify for effects: blue, grayscale, watermark,
filers, and spotlight and magnify.
Tags Tab
Use the icons in the Flags group to identify and categorize your
captures. Simply click the icon to assign it to your capture. Click it
again to remove it from your capture.
Assign Keywords to your captures. Your words are then listed in
the All Keywords box by selecting the down arrow to launch the
dialogue box.
When did you take that screen capture? Check the Details box. Find
more information like its file size by clicking the More Details icon.
View Tab
Send Tab
Use View to pan, zoom, and change the view of multiple captures.
Send your capture to another program.
Select Region for Profile
You capture is placed in Editor.
Capture Icon
Resizing an image
Selection Tool
Working with the Library
Select Region for Profile
Select Region for Profile
If you have assigned flags to your capture or media file, you will
see them in the Tray. You will know more flags are assigned if you
see an ellipse symbol after the second flag.
Capture a Scrolling Web Page
Capture a Scrolling Web Page
!! The maximum size of an AVI file produced by Snagit is 2
GB. If you pass this size limit, the entire capture is lost.
Reviewing a basic screen capture
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Snagit Profile = Capture Mode + Input + Effects + Output
248
Sample: Request for Proposal
This sample was prepared for a real request for a proposal.
(RFP) The purpose for including it in my portfolio is to
demonstrate competency in writing RFPs.
Description
This proposal was prepared for the Bay Area Toll Authority (BATA) for the purpose
of conducting a Project Study Report (PSR) for the Gateway Park Area in the San
Francisco Bay Area. The Gateway Park Area is located just south of the toll plaza of
the San Francisco-Oakland Bay. The main objective of the Gateway Park Area PSR
was to advance the planning for the Gateway Park Area by defining and reaching
regional and local agreement on a scope, cost and funding plan for a Gateway Park
Area project. The goal of the Gateway Park PSR was to examine alternatives in
regards to land uses, activities, environmental impacts, and access to define a project
scope, schedule, and cost estimate for the development of a Gateway Park Area.
April 7, 2009
Request for Proposal
For Preparation of a Project Study Report for the
Gateway Park Area in the San Francisco Bay Area
WEB: www.mtc.ca.gov
Poe and Associates, Inc.
Engineering and Consulting
May 8, 2009
Mr. Rod McMillan
Bay Area Toll Authority
Joseph P. Bort MetroCenter
101 Eighth Street
Oakland, CA 94607-4700
Subject:
Request for Proposal for Preparation of a Project Study Report
for the Gateway Park Area in the San Francisco Bay Area
Dear Mr. McMillan:
Poe and Associates, Inc., is pleased to submit a proposal to the Bay Area Toll Authority
(BATA) to conduct a Project Study Report (PSR) for the Gateway Park Area in the San
Francisco Bay Area. Our team of experienced professionals can provide a modern
approach to the identification of cost effective alternatives pertaining to land use
development at the project site.
Community and stakeholder consensus is absolutely critical to the success of any project,
irrespective of size. At Poe and Associates, we seek to reach out to and bring together all
stakeholders. We explain all aspects of the project and seek input from all attendees of
meetings. No comment is ever insignificant. We look forward to working under the
Gateway Park Working Group (GPWG) on the development of the PSR. We also have
on our team experienced professionals available for mediation services.
Our goal is to transform the input provided to us into alternatives that are compatible with
project goals and input, and proceed with preliminary analysis. Our analysis includes but
is not limited to:
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Land use,
Land ownership and acquisitions,
Infrastructure needs,
Accessibility requirements, and
Environmental documentation requirements.
Poe and Associates acknowledges that the two primary areas for analysis include the
Gateway Park Area and the larger “Area of Influence,” which takes into account current
and/or future land development of the City of Oakland, the Port of Oakland, and East Bay
Municipal Utility District, etc.
Poe and Associates, Inc.
123 Main Street, Suite 500 * Anywhere, CA 94706 * Phone: 1-800-CAN-DOIT
Poe and Associates, Inc.
Engineering and Consulting
At Poe and Associates, our cost estimating services render affordable projects to our
clients. We will develop realistic cost estimates for each alternative and also identify
additional funding sources to finance the development.
Concurrent with our cost estimates, our project scheduling capability yields construction
schedules that adhere to all Federal and State regulatory work windows, and other
miscellaneous requirements, while also remaining cost effective to our clients. We seek
to build the best project possible within a reasonable amount of time.
The primary contact person for the project will be Ms. Smith, project manager:

Ms. Jane Smith
Poe and Associates, Inc.
123 Main Street, Suite 500
Anywhere, CA 94706
Phone: 1-800-CAN-DOIT
Poe and Associates, Inc. understands that the proposal is a binding offer to contract with
BATA according to all requirements, in addition to insurance items, set forth in the RFP
for a period of 120 days from the due date for submission of this proposal.
We’re excited about this project and the future of the Gateway Park Area. We look
forward to working with you, the Gateway Park Working Group, and all stakeholders to
advance the planning process for this exciting addition to the San Francisco Bay Area.
Sincerely,
Ms. Eugenie Poe
President, Poe and Associates, Inc.
Poe and Associates, Inc.
123 Main Street, Suite 500 * Anywhere, CA 94706 * Phone: 1-800-CAN-DOIT
Poe and Associates, Inc.
Engineering and Consulting
Preparation of a Project Study Report For the
Gateway Park Area In the San Francisco Bay Area
May 8, 2009
Contact:
Ms. Jane Smith
Poe and Associates, Inc.
123 Main Street, Suite 500
Anywhere, CA 94706
Phone: 1-800-CAN-DOIT
Poe and Associates, Inc.
123 Main Street, Suite 500 * Anywhere, CA 94706 * Phone: 1-800-CAN-DOIT
Poe and Associates, Inc.
Engineering and Consulting
Table of Contents
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
Summary of Approach ............................................................................................ 6
Detailed Work Plan ................................................................................................. 6
Management Plan.................................................................................................... 6
Qualifications and References ................................................................................ 7
Proposed Budget ..................................................................................................... 7
CA Levine Act Statement ....................................................................................... 7
Poe and Associates, Inc.
123 Main Street, Suite 500 * Anywhere, CA 94706 * Phone: 1-800-CAN-DOIT
Poe and Associates, Inc.
Engineering and Consulting
I. Summary of Approach
1. Discussion of the purpose of the project;
2. A summary of the proposed approach specific to each task;
3. Assumptions made in selecting the approach; and
4. Identification of any difficult issues that may affect the implementation of the
project and how those issues will be addressed.
II. Detailed Work Plan
1. Discuss how each task will be conducted, identify deliverables, and propose a
preliminary schedule.
2. Identify all key personnel and associated tasks for which he or she is responsible.
3. Describe the role of any subconsultants and how they will be supervised. Discuss
previous working relationships.
4. Identify potential project challenges, critical path items, and any other issues that
may affect completion of the project within the proposed time frame. Detail a
plan to overcome these challenges.
III. Management Plan
1. Describe project management approach.
2. Include an organizational chart.
3. Describe response mechanisms for addressing challenges and concerns.
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IV. Qualifications and References
1. Describe experience and expertise in all areas of the scope of work included in the
Appendix A of the RFP.
2. Provide a one page summary of three projects similar in subject matter and scope.
a. Include client/contact/reference, contract amount, and contact phone
number.
3. List any contracts with any of the GPW agencies listed on Page 1 of the Letter of
Invitation.
V. Proposed Budget
1. Provide a full description and breakdown of the expected expenditures of funds
for the proposed project. Present a breakdown of hours and expenses by task,
along with key personnel.
VI. CA Levine Act Statement
1. Submit a signed Levine Act Statement.
256
Sample: Healthcare Informatics Evaluation Proposal
This sample was prepared for Drexel INFO 732.
Description
The course introduces planning and evaluation of healthcare informatics applications.
Through critical reading, students learn the planning and evaluation cycle and become
familiar with quantitative and qualitative methods and measures. Through lectures and
assignments, students select a healthcare problem, formulate a problem statement,
select evaluation methods and measures and write a proposal.
Course Objectives
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Identify an informatics issue as an evaluation problem
Describe the evaluation cycle (plan, do, test, change)
Select evaluation measures and methods appropriate to evaluation in healthcare
informatics
Write a proposal to conduct an evaluation study in an area of interest in healthcare
informatics
Critique and present relevant evaluation studies from the informatics literature
HEALTHCARE PRIORITY SETTING
1
Priority Setting in Healthcare
By
Lisa Romanoski
Drexel University
Author Note
This paper has been prepared in
accordance with INFO 732 requirements.
HEALTHCARE PRIORITY SETTING
2
Introduction and Problem Statement
As healthcare organizations become increasingly focused on achieving Stage One
Meaningful Use and a conversion to International Classification of Diseases, 10th Edition
Diagnosis and Procedure Codes (ICD-10) in the next two years, installation rates for key clinical
applications such as electronic medical records (EMRs) continues to increase, yielding greater
amounts of electronic clinical data (Healthcare Information Management Systems Society
(HIMSS, 2010; HIMSS, 2012, p.4). With so much data available to organizations, they will want
to consider how best to use the data to improve clinical performance and outcomes.
While this data seems like a goldmine of information waiting to be tapped, challenges
exist in regard to how best to use the data and availability of resources (e.g., staff, money, etc.).
If staff or other resources aren’t available or in short supply, organizations may need to turn to
priority setting, which can provide a focus for work and continued progress towards preventative
care, illness/injury reduction, and other healthcare goals (Bate & Mitton, 2006, p. 275; CanhamChervak et al., 2010, p. S11; HIMSS, 2010).
The present literature reveals that priority setting in healthcare is not a clear cut process
and, due to greater demand for accountability and transparency, there exists a need for such
processes. The purpose of this evaluation is to help fulfill that need by seeking answers to the
questions: (1) How do healthcare organizations set priorities? (2) Are there instructions or
templates that can be used in decision making processes? (3) Can introducing a decision making
tool better assist healthcare organizations in setting priorities? Organizations in this study are
considered to encompass acute care facilities. Conclusions drawn from this research are expected
to add to the body of knowledge in priority setting and decision making.
HEALTHCARE PRIORITY SETTING
3
Literature Review
History
According to the 2012 HIMSS Leadership Survey of senior information technology (IT)
executives, the most significant barrier to implementing IT is lack of staffing resources, followed
by lack of adequate financial support (p. 24). These results are examples of issues that face all
healthcare organizations: how best to allocate resources considering all the demands, wants, and
needs collectively competing for those scarce resources (Bate & Mitton, 2006, p. 275; Sibbald et
al., 2010, p. 1). Because of this scarcity, decision making tends to be based on prioritizing
activities in an effort to determine what to provide, how, where, and for whom (p. 275). Despite
the fact this issue is a global phenomenon operating at all levels – from the government
allocating a budget to clinicians treating patients – priority setting techniques tend to differ from
organization to organization (p. 275).
Current Priority-setting Practices in Healthcare
In general, most healthcare organizations rely on a health service or an economic
approach for priority setting (Bate & Mitton, 2006, p. 277). Health service approaches include
base allocation decisions on what was previously funded, needs assessments aimed at
determining activities to pursue to achieve goals at the individual or population level, or
allocation of resources to support provision of core services (p. 277-8). Health service
approaches tend to focus on addressing a need and then directing resources to fill a gap in service
provision (p. 279). The shortcoming of this approach is that it results in identification of a
resource required to meet a need with little regard to where the resource will come from and
which need may trump another in terms of importance (p. 279).
HEALTHCARE PRIORITY SETTING
4
Economic approaches include cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA), cost-utility analysis
(CUA), and cost-benefit analysis (CBA) (p. 277). The strengths of these analyses is that costs
and outcomes are considered, and one treatment may be compared with another in terms of
incremental gains for incremental resources expended (p. 277). The shortcoming of an economic
approach is that results may not be applicable to the decision making context of an organization,
whose decisions tend to focus on service expansion or reduction and allocation of resources over
technologies and groups of people (p. 279). Furthermore, Friedman & Wyatt (2006) note that
they rarely indicate a correct choice (p. 303). Additional supporting information that takes into
account political, ethical, and other concerns may be needed to truly determine if an outcome
gain is worth the cost (Friedman & Wyatt, 2006, p. 303).
Priority Setting Factors
As mentioned previously, priority setting techniques vary from organization to
organization (Bate & Mitton, 2006, p. 275; Sibbald et al., 2010, p. 2). Regardless, a review of
healthcare organization priority setting literature indicates that factors influential to most
organizations’ priority setting processes include (Aspen Advisors, 2011; Brooks, 2008, p. 101-4;
Gibson et al., 2004, p. 3; Gouri, 2010, p. 1):
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Organizational mission, objectives, values, mandates, and directives
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A 360-degree organizational view
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The environment into which something might be deployed (technology, an application)
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A definition of the future
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Strategic initiatives
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Constraints
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Stakeholder communication
Priority setting is typically aligned with mission, values, and strategic goals for most
organizations (Aspen Advisors, 2011; Bate & Mitton, 2006; Brooks, 2008; Canham-Cherval et
HEALTHCARE PRIORITY SETTING
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al., 2010; Chaiken, 2003; Gibson et al., 2004; Gouri, 2010; Menon et al., 2007; Sibbald et al.,
2010; Vogel, 2003; VQC, 2008). These factors, in combination with others listed above,
represent common attributes from various disparate priority setting techniques. Extracting these
factors from the literature provides information that should be looked for during the proposed
evaluation.
Priority Setting Tool Availability
In reviewing the literature in search of specific, easy to use, step-wise priority setting
tools or toolkits, such as a list of instructional steps or a downloadable form, only one tool was
identified (Canham-Chervak et al., 2010). The majority of literature was found instead to consist
of miscellaneous rhetoric on the subject or general guidelines developed from qualitative
interviews or case studies (Bate & Mitton, 2006; Dolan, 2008; Gibson et al., 2004; Sibbald et al.,
2010; VQC, 2008).
The one readily available tool found in the literature was developed by Canham-Chervak
et al. (2010) for military injury prevention activities. The process first looks at whether the issue
is consistent with the agency mission and then uses scoring to assess problem importance,
preventability, feasibility, timeliness, and evaluation potential (p. S12 – S16). The higher the
score obtained from the process, the stronger the indication that the issue was amenable to
program and policy implementation (p. S14). The authors note that the strength of the process is
its attempt to minimize bias through the use of quantifiable, objective measures (p. S16).
Objectivity is built in by requiring a review of available data (p. S16). The attractiveness of this
particular tool is its accessibility, simplicity, ability to be used quickly, and its adaptability to
prioritization efforts in other healthcare areas.
HEALTHCARE PRIORITY SETTING
6
The guidelines are helpful to get healthcare organizations and decision makers focused to
the task at hand. If an organization is looking to make modifications to its existing processes or
adopt entirely new methodology, the final method chosen may be a combination of methods and
guidelines tailored to the uniqueness of an organization and the context in which decisions are
being made (Bate & Mitton, 2006, p. 281).
Evaluation Design
Qualitative Case Study
A two-phase qualitative case study focusing on priority setting is proposed. Case studies
are considered appropriate for exploring decision making processes (Friedman & Wyatt, 2006,
p. 296).
Researchers
Principal investigator. Bob Smith has over 20 years of experience as a program
manager and advisor to healthcare and IT executives.
Research associate. Alison Sweeney holds a PhD from Northern University in Health
Service and Policy Research and has 10 years of experience in health policy and administration.
Initial Requirements
This study will require review and approval by the organization’s institutional review
board (IBR) and consent from participants (Friedman & Wyatt, 2006, p. 292, 339).
Phase 1: Existing Processes
Methods. The first phase of this evaluation consists of a review of current priority setting
process for the previous five years of budget appropriations for the Health4U organization’s San
Francisco Medical Center. Health4U serves 25 million Americans from 40 hospitals and 700
HEALTHCARE PRIORITY SETTING
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medical buildings in 12 states5. The review will consist of internal company documents and
semi-structured interviews (see Appendix A for a list of questions to be answered during
analysis). Documents of interest include but are not limited to the strategic plan; priority setting,
decision making, and budget allocation processes; and decision support documents. The purpose
is to determine what the current process is, if the process is used consistently from year to year,
what the process evaluates, and what the outcomes of the process are. Collectively these findings
will establish baseline conditions for the study and help define the existing priority setting
process. This portion of the evaluation does not seek to evaluate correctness of priority setting
and decision making processes. Information analysis from this part of the study is anticipated to
be on-going throughout the evaluation.
Phase 2: Using a Tool
Methods. The second phase of this evaluation aims to introduce a priority setting tool,
which is anticipated to be a modified version of a tool developed by Canham-Chervak et al. in
2010 (see Appendix B). The purpose of this part of the study is to determine if the tool aids,
hinders, or has no effect on the organization’s priority setting and decision making process.
Using information acquired from Phase 1, Canham-Chervak et al.’s tool will need to be revised
and tailored to the specific organization. A copy of this tool is available in Appendix B. Semistructured interviews with key decision-makers will be used to assess the tool’s helpfulness.
Participants. Participants in both study phases are anticipated to include employees of
the medical center who are directly and indirectly involved in a typical priority setting and/or
budgeting process.
Interviews and Data Analysis. Interviews will require consent from participants and be
tape recorded (Friedman & Wyatt, 2006, p. 292). All tapes will be securely stored. Backup
5
Health4U is a fictitious company developed for purposes of this assignment.
HEALTHCARE PRIORITY SETTING
8
copies of tapes will be made and securely stored in a separate location from original tapes (p.
83). Preparing recorded data will require transcribing all tapes and typing transcriptions into
computer files (p. 83). Transcription of recordings and typing of any field notes will be
completed using a common format as soon as possible following collection (p. 83-4).
Transcriptions will be coded to identify repeating ideas and larger themes. When themes seem to
coalesce, results may be taken back to participants for confirmation (Friedman & Wyatt, 2006, p.
288). An independent consultant will be used to review data and themes as an added
confirmation (p. 288). Preliminary survey questions may be found in Appendix C.
Reporting
Results and findings will be summarized in a report presented to the organization’s
executive committee. The report will include standard sections such as introduction, background,
methods, findings/results, discussion, and conclusions (Friedman & Wyatt, 2006, p. 290). An
oral presentation will also be prepared, allowing opportunity for discussion, questions, and
answers.
Stakeholders
Stakeholders who have an interest in this study’s outcomes include the organization,
executive and managerial staff, clinicians, patients, and the local population. Evaluation
outcomes may influence the way an organization sets priorities and makes decisions in the
future. Executive and managerial staff may decide to retain existing processes and do nothing or
consider revising processes and approaches. Clinicians may experience change or no change
depending on policies and decisions made be executive staff. For example, if the organization
decides to shift away from a historical allocation budget process to a different approach, certain
areas may see a relocation of resources to or from the units in which they work. Outcomes of
HEALTHCARE PRIORITY SETTING
9
interest to patients and the local population pertain to changes in provision, type, and cost of
service, as well as accountability and transparency in decision making.
Quality Control
It is generally recognized that the criteria for appraising the quality and trustworthiness of
qualitative research differs from quantitative research (Friedman & Wyatt, 2006, p. 291;
Shenton, 2004, p. 63). To ensure quality, Guba’s constructs for trustworthiness as presented by
Shenton (2004) will be adhered to.
Credibility. To ensure credibility, a number of techniques will be employed. This
evaluation seeks to use well-established research methods: namely interviews and data
organization using coding techniques to extract themes. Familiarity with the medical center and
its culture will be established early in the process prior to beginning Phase 1. While random
sampling is preferred to negate potential for bias, it may be difficult to achieve random sampling
in a study of one medical center. Nonetheless, random sampling will be executed to the extent
possible. To ensure results and common themes are as useful as can be, triangulation methods of
cross checking information with existing documents may be used. Results may be taken back to
previously interviewed or different participants for confirmation. Participants are not required to
participate and may withdraw from the study at any point. This tactic aims to involve participants
who are genuinely willing to participate and offer information freely. Iterative questioning may
be used to flush out contradictory information. Frequent debriefing sessions and peer scrutiny
will be used to identify flaws in the course of action and offer a fresh perspective on unfolding
activities (Shenton, 2004, p. 66-7).
It is anticipated that the Hawthorne effect, “the tendency for humans to improve their
performance if they know it is being studied,” may impact outcomes from Phase 2 of the
HEALTHCARE PRIORITY SETTING
10
evaluation (Friedman & Wyatt, 2006, p. 211). It is assumed that it may be impossible to prevent,
so the researchers of this evaluation choose to remain aware of the possibility, will attempt to
decipher behavioral differences since existing data will be reviewed and may serve as a baseline
for comparison, and, on the recommendation of Leonard and Masatu (2010), may study the
effect more closely in an effort to improve understanding of performance and behavior.
Transferability. Since this study focuses on a single organization, transferability to other
cases may be problematic. Nonetheless, sufficient contextual information will be provided to
enable readers of the research to make decisions about application to other situations (Shenton,
2004, p. 69).
Dependability. The methods used in this evaluation, including design and data gathering,
will be reported in detail to enable future researchers to repeat the work (Shenton, 2004, p. 71).
However, as this particular evaluation focuses on one medical center, the results obtained from
any future work using these methods may not necessarily yield the same results. Contextual
factors may influence future outcomes.
Confirmability. Triangulation will be used as described above and to minimize
investigator bias. Assumptions pertaining to approaches and decisions will be discussed in the
report. Use of diagrams, as recommended by Shenton (2004) will be used to show the “audit
trail” for the evaluation, which typically consists of raw data prior to coding, data reduction and
analysis products, and data reconstruction and synthesis products (Wolf, 2003, p. 176).
Study Limitations
Study limitations include both methodological and researcher limitations. Methodological
study limitations pertinent to this study could include data availability, data collection measures,
and use of self-reported data (USC.edu., 2012). As mentioned previously, this study proposes to
HEALTHCARE PRIORITY SETTING
11
look at one medical center. It is assumed that there are existing documents or other artifacts that
can be analyzed to complete Phase 1 of the study. In regard to data collection, the possibility
exists for inadvertently leaving out an interview question that may have proved useful in the
assessment. To the extent possible, questions initially presented in this proposal may be reevaluated throughout the study and modified to account for such possibilities. Reporting will
include information as to why data collection measures may have been revised mid-study. In
regard to data collected during interviews, the possibility exists that participants may be
introduce bias due to factors including but not limited to selective situational recalls or other
factors. Evaluators will attempt to minimize biases according to measures specified in Quality
Control.
Limitations of the researcher may include access to data, such as existing documentation,
and individual bias. Attempts to minimize bias are outlined in Quality Control.
Conclusion
The research team looks forward to working on this project. Priority setting in healthcare
is an important area to focus on because resources always seem to be in short supply, forcing
decisions to be made about which activities, programs, or services to pursue. This study proposes
to evaluate an existing process, introduce a new tool, and determine the effect of the new tool.
The significance of this work lies in its relevancy and importance to addressing the issue of
prioritizing in light of the current and future data influx from electronic applications, as well as
the demand for greater transparency and accountability in decision making. Our work seeks build
upon existing work and answer questions that will assist all healthcare organizations in setting
priorities, a fundamental fact of life that is global concern.
HEALTHCARE PRIORITY SETTING
12
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16
HEALTHCARE PRIORITY SETTING
Appendix A
17
HEALTHCARE PRIORITY SETTING
18
Document Analysis
(These questions were developed based on work by Sibbald et al. (2010).)
1. Is there a record of who was involved during each phase of the priority setting process? Are
the records consistent?
2. Is there a record of the process by which decisions were made and people were involved?
3. What forms of communication were used?
4. Was there a clear communication plan?
5. Are there any documents pertaining to an appeal process? What does it look like?
6. What does the process evaluate?
7. What are the process outcomes? (i.e., budget allocation, policy setting, purchase of new
equipment, etc.)
8. Is the process used consistently from year to year?
Analyze Mission, Vision, Values, and Strategic Plan
9. Were the mission, vision, and values considered considering in the strategic plan?
Analyze Budget
10. Does the budget reflect a change in resources or priorities given to the programs?
11. Does the budget have similar or different goals/priorities than other organizational
documents (e.g., strategic plan, other departmental/program budgets)?
HEALTHCARE PRIORITY SETTING
Appendix B
19
HEALTHCARE PRIORITY SETTING
Figure B-18. This table will be the tool introduced to the organization to assist in priority
setting. It will be revised to fit the specific context and situation following review of existing
documents. This table was developed by Canham-Chervak et al. (2010, p. S13).
20
HEALTHCARE PRIORITY SETTING
Appendix C
21
HEALTHCARE PRIORITY SETTING
22
Preliminary Survey Tool
(These questions were developed based on work by Sibbald et al. (2010).)
1. Were you aware that [organization] had a priority setting process?
2. How involved were you in the priority setting?
3. Were you satisfied with your involvement in the priority setting process? Why/why not?
Information and Communication
4. Were the following elements communicated to you?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Purpose and goals
Methods
Outcomes
Revision/appeals
5. Please indicate how well these items were communicated to you. (Rank: they were not, very
poorly, adequately, well, very well, and N/A.)
a.
b.
c.
d.
Purpose and goals
Methods
Outcomes
Revision/appeals
6. Did you understand the purpose and goals of the priority setting process?
7. How could the communication be improved?
Information and Communication
8. Was there an explicit and predetermined timeline for the priority setting process?
9. Was a revision or appeals process available (where a decision can be contested or reviewed?
10. During the priority setting process, the following items were considered and to what extent
(not at all, minimally, extensively):
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Mission, values, vision
Strategic plan
Context
Culture
Community values
HEALTHCARE PRIORITY SETTING
f. Patient values
g. Patient needs
h. Staff values
11. What other items should have been considered in priority setting?
Outcomes
12. Do you understand the outcome of the priority setting?
13. Do you accept the outcomes of priority setting?
14. Are you satisfied with the outcomes of priority setting?
15. To what degree are the following items reflected in the priority setting?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
Mission, values, vision
Strategic plan
Context
Culture
Community values
Patient values
Patient needs
Staff values
16. In comparison to previous decision making or priority setting, is there consistency in
reasoning between the previous and current process?
17. How satisfied were you with the process behind the priority setting?
18. Did you find the tool helpful?
19. How would you improve the process?
23

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