Volume 35, No. 3, 2014
Edited by/ Édité par
Ebrahim Mazaheri
Laurentian University
and/et
Saeed Shobeiri
Université de Sherbrooke
Marketing division - La section Marketing
Proceedings of the Annual Marketing Division Conference of the Administrative Sciences
Association of Canada 2014
Muskoka, Ontario
May 10-13, 2014
Actes du Congrès annuel de la section Marketing de l’Association des sciences administratives
du Canada
Muskoka, Ontario
10-13 mai 2014
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is a pleasure to present the proceedings for
the Annual Marketing Division Conference
of the Administrative Sciences Association
of Canada 2014.
This year, I was very impressed by the
quality of papers submitted to the Marketing
Division and choosing one best paper was a
challenge for me and my colleagues. For
that, I would like to thank all the authors for
considering the ASAC as a venue for their
work.
I would like to thank other Marketing
Division executives, Dr. Cheikhrouhou, the
division chair, Dr.Zahaf, the program chair,
and Dr. Shobeiri, the academic editor
(French), for their helpful guidance,
encouragement, and support throughout this
process.
Finally, I would like to express my sincere
thanks to all the reviewers for their prompt
evaluation of the papers and helpful
comments to the authors.
Thank you all for supporting the Marketing
Division of ASAC.
Ebrahim Mazaheri
School of Commerce and Administration
Laurentian University
Academic Reviewer (English), Marketing
Division.
Administrative Sciences Association of
Canada Conference, 2014.
REMERCIEMENTS
C’est un grand honneur de pouvoir faire
partie de l’équipe ASAC 2014 !
En tant qu’éditeur de la division française de
la section Marketing, j’ai pu constater à quel
point les participants de ce domaine sont
motivés et déterminés.
J’aimerais remercier vivement mon
homologue du côté anglophone, Ebrahim
Mazaheri, avec qui ce fut un réel plaisir de
collaborer. Un merci aussi à la Présidente de
la section Marketing, Soumaya
Cheikhrouhou, pour son soutien. Pour finir,
je tiens à remercier également tous les
évaluateurs qui, par leur dévouement, ont su
apporter des commentaires constructifs, qui
contribuent à la qualité de cette conférence,
mais aussi et surtout à l’avancement des
connaissances.
….et un grand merci aux auteurs qui
alimentent cette conférence par des
communications de qualité.
Saeed Shobeiri
Faculté d'administration
Université de Sherbrooke
Éditeur divisionnaire - Division française,
Conférence de l’Association des sciences
administratives du Canada, 2014.
REVIEWERS/ÉVALUATEURS
Hamed Aghakhani
University of Manitoba, Canada
Sanam Akhavannasab
HEC Montreal, Canada
Kersi D Antia
University of Western Ontario (Ivey Business School), Canada
Manon Arcand
L'Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada
Debra Basil
University of Lethbridge, Canada
Neil Bendle
University of Western Ontario (Ivey Business School), Canada
Lionel Colombel
N/A
Rita Cossa
McMaster University, Canada
Paul Curwen
Carleton University (Sprott School of Buisness), Canada
Jessica Darveau
HEC Montreal, Canada
James Doyle
Carleton University, Canada
Said Echchakoui
L'Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada
Hajar Fatemi
McGill University, Canada
Tripat Gill
Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada
Bianca Grohmann
Concordia University, Canada
Ahlem Hajjem
L'Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada
Mohammed El Hazzouri
Mount Royal University, Canada
Pouya Javanshir
Concordia University, Canada
Hae Joo Kim
Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada
Ashwin Joshi
York University (Schulich School of Business), Canada
Harish Kapoor
Acadia University, Canada
Salma Karray
University of Ontario Institution of Technology, Canada
Caroline Lacroix
L'Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada
Josée Laflamme
Université du Québec à Rimouski, Canada
David Lewise
Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada
H.F. (Herb) MacKenzie
Brock University, Canada
Donelda McKechnie
Athabasca University, Canada
Kalyani Menon
Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada
Sylvie Morin
Université du Québec à Rimouski, Canada
Alazne Mujika Alberdi
University of Deusto, Spain
Ron Mulholland
Lakehead University, Canada
Marcelo V. Nepomuceno
ESCP, Europe
Mahshid Omid
Université Laval, Canada
Grant Packard
Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada
Neeraj Pandey
NITIE, Mumbai
Ann Pegoraro
Lakehead University, Canada
Monica Popa
University of Saskatchewan, Canada
Claudio Pousa
Lakehead University, Canada
Lova Rajaobelina
L'Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada
Benny Rigaux-Bricmont
Université Laval, Canada
Francine Rodier
L'Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada
Mina Rohani
HEC Montreal, Canada
Khalil Rohani
University of Guelph, Canada
Laila Rohani
University of Guelph, Canada
Jean Roy
Université de Sherbrooke, Canada
Sidney Su Han
University of Guelph, Canada
Ali Tezer
Concordia University, Canada
Maryam Tofighi
John Molson School of Business/Concordia University, Canada
Claire I Tsai
University of Toronto (Joseph L. Rotman School of Management), Canada
Peter Voyer
University of Windsor, Canada
Darlene Walsh
Concordia University, Canada
Sarah Wilner
Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada
Pi-Chu Wu
China University of Technology, China
Ruhai Wu
McMaster University (DeGroote School of Business), Canada
Terry Wu
University of Ontario Institution of Technology, Canada
Ying Zhu
University of British Columbia (Okanagan Campus), Canada
Cataldo Zuccaro
L'Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada
TABLE OF CONTENTS/TABLE DES MATIÈRES
Does Dirty Money Influence Product Valuations?
Chelsea Galoni (Student), University of Guelph, Canada
Theodore J. Noseworthy, University of Guelph, Canada
It Ain’t Easy Being Green: Unintended Effects of the Colour Green
Ethan Pancer, St.Mary’s University, Canada
Lindsay McShane, Carleton University, Canada
A Consumer-Based Examination of Sustainable Consumption Using a Social Normative
Perspective
Peter Voyer, University of Windsor, Canada
The Interplay Between Arousal and Schema Congruity
Theodore J. Noseworthy, University of Guelph, Canada
Fabrizio Di Muro, University of Winnipeg, Canada
Kyle Murray, University of Alberta, Canada
BEST PAPER - ENGLISH /MEILLEURE COMMUNICATION - ANGLAIS:
How Temporal Distance Influences Single Category Beliefs for New Products
Sean Hingston, University of Guelph, Canada
Theodore J. Noseworthy, University of Guelph, Canada
Les leviers de l’expérience de marque
Naoufel Remili, Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada
The Effect of Fairness and Transparency in Coupon Design
Khalil Rohani, Ryerson University, Canada
Vinay Kanetka, University of Guelph, Canada
Joe Barth, University of Guelph, Canada
Lefa Teng, University of Guelph, Canada
How Sales Promotions Induce Consumers to Buy on Impluse: The Role of Impulsivity
Trait
Mahshid Omid, Université Laval, Canada
Frank Pons, Université Laval, Canada
Centralité et éthique de la marque
Soumaya Cheikhrouhou, Université de Sherbrooke, Canada
Deny Belisle, Université de Sherbrooke, Canada
Margaux Bruniere, Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada
The Differential Effects of Traditional and Touchscreen Interfaces on Involvement
Ying Zhu, Faculty of Management, University of British Columbia-Okanagan, Canada
Jeffrey Meyer, College of Business, Bowling Green State University, USA
Impact of Value Added by the Frontline Employees on Customer Loyalty
Said Echchakoui, Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue, Canada
A Game-Theorectic Model for Co-Promotions: Choosing a Complementary Versus an
Independant Ally
Salma Karray, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Canada
Simon-Pierre Sigue, Athabasca University, Canada
Le rôle de la couleur dans le design d’une offre promotionnelle
Deny Belisle, Université de Sherbrooke, Canada
Soumaya Cheikhrouhou, Université de Sherbrooke, Canada
Kiranjit Singh, Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada
Labor Stands in the Way of True Love: When Labor does not Lead to Love
Peyman Assadi, University of Manitoba, Canada
Kelley Main, University of Manitoba, Canada
I Do It Because I Believe It: Reconsideration of Loyalty in Regard to Its Attitudinal
Antecedents
Mehdi Akhgari (student), Asper School of Business, Canada
ABSTRACTS
A Multiple Criteria Senior Segmentation: The Case of French Market
Yamen Koubaa, France Business School, France
Rym Srarfi Tabbane, University of Tunis, Tunisia
Manel Hamouda, University of Tunis, Tunisia
All for One, One for All? Franchisor-Franchisee Interdependance, Governance and
Bankruptcy
Kersi Antia, University of Western, Canada
Sudha Mani, William Paterson University, United States
Kenneth Wathne, University Of Stavanger, Norway
Scandale de marque! Comprendre les rôles et les pratiques des médias lors d’un scandale
impliquant une marque-personne
Elodie Beroard, HEC Montréal, Canada
Marie-Agnès Parmentier, HEC Montréal, Canada
The Effect of Self-Complexity on Consumer Judgement of Losses
Najam Saqib, Qatar University, Qatar
Amit Das, Qatar University, Qatar
Effect of Consumer Incompetence on Negative Word-of-Mouth
Matthew Philp, Queen’s University, Canada
Laurence Ashworth, Queen’s University, Canada
Why to Consume What Does Not Exist? The Case of Second Life
Mahshid Omid (Student), Université Laval, Canada
Combination of MCDM Methods in Ranking Insurance Product Portfolio (A Case Study in
Parsian Insurance Co.)
Mahshid Sadat Mohammadi Jahromi, Tarbiat Modares University, Iran
Adel Azar, Tarbiat Modares University, Iran
Ali Rajabzadeh, Tarbiat Modares University, Iran
The Impact of Web-Mining Tools on Prospective Web Customers Profiling and Acquisition
Myriam Ertx, Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada
Raoul Graf, Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada
Human Versus Synthetic Voice: The Impact on Social Presence, Trust and Behavioral
Intention
Emna Cherif, Univeristé Paris 1 Panthéon Sorbonne, France
Jean-François Lemoine Univeristé Paris 1 Panthéon Sorbonne, France
Supermarket Innovation in the Presence of Non-traditional Competition
Robert Thomson, Universite de Sherbrooke, Canada
Offering Experiential Values to Improve Customers Attitudes towards Websites: A
Comparison of Goods and Services Websites
Saeed Shobeiri, Université de Sherbrooke, Canada
Ebrahim Mazaheri, Laurentian University, Canada
Michel Laroche, Concordia University, Canada
L’effet de la compensation sur l'équité perçue: le rôle modérateur de l’engagement affectif
Anis Chtourou, ESC Troyes, France
When is Sustainability a Liability Versus an Asset in Hedonic Products
Leila Kamali, Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada
Tripat Gill, Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada
Le comportement social virtuel du consommateur et la gestion sociale virtuelle par
l’organisation: Une revue de la littérature
Amin Othmani, Université de Sherbrooke, Canada
The Role of Money in Psychological Tensions
Hamed Aghakhani (Student), University of Manitoba, Canada
Mehdi Akhgari (Student), University of Manitoba, Canada
Kelley Main, University of Manitoba, Canada
Do the Order and Repetition of Mere Exposure to Green Products and Purchase Intention
Impact the Priming and Llicensing Effects?
Jianning Huang, University of Lethbridge, Canada
Debra Basil, University of Lethbridge, Canada
Running Head: DOES DIRTY MONEY INFLUENCE PRODUCT VALUATIONS?
Does Dirty Money Influence Product Valuations?
Chelsea Galoni (Student), University of Guelph, Canada
Theodore J. Noseworthy, University of Guelph, Canada
Abstract
This research demonstrates that the physical appearance of money can influences the valuation placed on
products. Specifically, we find that perceived contamination and disgust from worn bills and credit cards
transfers to the products purchased, subsequently lowering perceived ownership value and significantly
reducing the endowment effect.
Running Head: DOES DIRTY MONEY INFLUENCE PRODUCT VALUATIONS?
Does Dirty Money Influence Product Valuations?
Evidence suggests that when consumers receive a signal that another consumer has touched a
product, both evaluations and purchase intentions for that product will be lessened (Argo, Dahl, &
Morales, 2006). The key finding from this work is that disgust is the core facilitator of consumer
contamination effects. In fact, even when a normatively disgusting object touches another product,
contamination can transfer and thus lower product evaluations (Morales & Fitzsimons, 2007). These
findings are consistent with the general idea that disgust can lead individuals to reject or devalue a
contaminated object (Rozin & Fallon, 1987; Rozin, Haidt, & McCauley, 1993; Rozin, Millman, &
Nemeroff, 1986; Rozin & Nemeroff, 1990). The most recent example of this phenomenon utilized
crumpled new bills to tap normative beliefs that money is dirty (Di Muro & Noseworthy, 2013). The
authors found that disgust derived from worn banknotes encourages individuals to rid themselves of the
notes, thus increasing spending. This work generated significant media attention under the premise that
dirty money (quite literally) may fuel the economy. Indeed, there may be a quantifiable benefit to leaving
worn bills in circulation. However, what the authors may have overlooked is that people may buy more
with dirty money, but they may put relatively less value on the things they purchase.
This prediction is not without support. Evidence suggests that discrete emotions play a major role
in economic transactions. Specifically, disgust can trigger the goal of expelling, which subsequently
reduces buying and selling prices, whereas sadness triggers the goal of changing one’s circumstances,
which can increase buying prices but reduce selling prices (Lerner, Small, & Lowenstein, 2004). In fact,
the motivational effect of disgust can be so strong that it eliminates the endowment effect—the tendency
for selling prices to exceed buying prices for the same object (Kahneman, Knetsch, & Thaler, 1991;
Thaler, 1980). Linking this phenomenon to money, Yang and colleagues (2013) found that dirty money
can lead people to engage in selfish and unfair practices, like cheating customers at a farmer’s market.
Although the authors did not focus on disgust, there is a wealth of evidence linking inferences of disgust
to moral disengagement (Schnall et al., 2008; Wheatley & Haidt, 2005).
Running Head: DOES DIRTY MONEY INFLUENCE PRODUCT VALUATIONS?
What much of this research has in common is that it is tapping what is referred to as pathogen
disgust or contamination disgust (Tybur, Lieberman, & Griskevicious, 2009), which researchers argue
evolved specifically to serve the function of avoidance (Curtis, Aunger, & Rabie, 2004; Curtis & Biran,
2001; Fessler & Navarrete, 2003; Marzillier & Davey, 2004). Pathogen disgust can be elicited through
visual cues that are normatively linked to pathogen presence, even when such cues may be devoid of
infectious agents (Rozin et al., 1986). Given the normative belief that money is dirty, it is not surprising
that individuals infer contamination from visually worn currency (Di Muro & Noseworthy, 2013). What
is surprising is that, because of this, individuals perceive higher carrying costs with worn currency, and
thus are more likely to spend contaminated bills. This finding is consistent with Lerner and colleague’s
(2004) notion of expelling, but it highlights the role of normative inferences. This raises an interesting
question: If inferences of prior use can disgust individuals enough to make them want to rid themselves of
worn currency (Di Muro & Noseworthy, 2013), and if pathogen disgust has the additional effect of
reducing buying and selling prices (Lerner et al., 2004), then could the physical state of the payment
method lower the subjective value of the products procured?
Generally speaking, evidence for endowment has revealed that selling prices are typically twice as
high as buying prices (Kahneman et al., 1990; Thaler, 1980). This discrepancy is often regarded as a
manifestation of loss aversion (Bar-Hillel & Neter, 1996; Carmon & Ariely, 2000). A basic tenet of loss
aversion is that losses loom larger than gains (Kahneman & Tversky, 1979; Tversky & Kahneman, 1991).
Hence, given that relinquishing an item is often more painful than not obtaining the item in the first place,
parting with the object is coded as a relative loss, whereas missing the opportunity to acquire the object is
seen as a foregone gain (Carmon & Ariely, 2000). Attributing the endowment effect to loss aversion
implicitly assumes that individuals develop some attachment to the items they own, which in turn
increases the item’s subjective value (Beggan, 1992; Beggan & Scott, 1997). Strahilevitz and
Loewenstein (1998) empirically validated this proposition (see also Pierce, Kostova, & Dirks, 2002).
The link between endowment and attachment is particularly relevant when discussing
contamination because pathogen disgust can inhibit attachment and lead individuals to devalue
Running Head: DOES DIRTY MONEY INFLUENCE PRODUCT VALUATIONS?
contaminated objects (Rozin & Fallon, 1987; Rozin et al., 1993; Rozin et al., 1986; Rozin & Nemeroff,
1990). This phenomenon is predicated on the law of contagion. The law of contagion holds that when a
source comes into direct or indirect contact with a target, the source can transfer some, if not all, of its
properties to the target (Rozin & Nemeroff, 1990). The target then retains the properties received from the
source even after the contact has been broken (Rozin & Nemeroff, 1990). Importantly, an individual does
not have to observe or directly experience contact for contamination to occur (Rozin et al., 1989). This
suggests the distinct possibility that touching something that is normatively disgusting (e.g., dirty money)
may contaminate subsequent touch (e.g., a product). This idea is not as farfetched as it may seem. At one
time or another, we have all been asked to wash our hands after touching something that is normatively
filthy for fear of pathogen transfer. The following studies attempt to isolate this effect using fundamental
objects that form the basis for economic exchange.
Study 1
Design and Procedures
Participants (N = 72; 67% female, Mage = 41.71) were recruited through advertisements and
public posters, and were tested one at a time in a mock retail setting (see appendix). Upon entering the
setting, each participant was presented with a box consisting of several sealed white envelopes.
Participants were informed that each envelope contains anywhere from $10 to $30. They were instructed
to select one envelope, open it, take out the money and confirm the amount. This ensured that participants
touched the money before engaging in the retail transaction. Despite the guise, all envelopes contained a
$20 bill. The range of the guise ensured that the $20 gain was not coded as a relative win or loss within
the realm of chance. The only thing that varied between participants was whether the bill in the envelope
was worn or crisp. Untarnished notes were requisitioned from a local bank. The worn condition was
manipulated by crumpling and discoloring the bills, whereas the crisp bills were left unaltered.
Upon taking the bill in hand, participants were directed to the store isle and given the following
instructions: “We are examining how people prioritize their spending when given a cash windfall. Today
Running Head: DOES DIRTY MONEY INFLUENCE PRODUCT VALUATIONS?
you will have the opportunity to purchase a product. We ask that you purchase AT LEAST ONE product.
You can purchase more than one if you like. Because the regular compensation for participation is
approximately $10, you will be allowed to keep the remaining money as well as keep any products you
choose to purchase. When you finish the shopping task, we ask that you bring your items to the cashier to
complete the transaction. The cashier will then give you the appropriate change.” The rationale for
encouraging participants to purchase a product was to ensure that each individual had a corresponding
price point to assess changes in willingness to accept. The products on the shelf were all food-related.
What varied was their nutritional value under the guise that we were exploring if people select healthier
versus less healthy snacks when awarded a cash windfall (see pretested product list in appendix). The
products ranged from $1.00 to $3.50, and were organized such that an adjacent healthier option of equal
price was always available.
Upon completing the selection, the cashier generated a receipt which recorded the experimental
condition (using a non-descript identifier), the number and name of the products purchased, and the entire
basket amount. The cashier then administered the appropriate change along with a copy of the receipt.
Participants were then directed to a cubicle to fill out a questionnaire. In step with Di Muro and
Noseworthy (2013), the questionnaire began with a manipulation check asking participants to judge the
degree to which the bill they used was worn-out (anchored 1 = not at all worn, 7 = very worn).
Participants were then instructed to focus specifically on how the bill made them feel, and respond to four
5-point items (anchored 1 = not at all, 5 = extremely) that captured perceived disgust (disgusted; unclean;
dirty; revolted; Morales & Fitzsimons, 2007). Unlike Di Muro and Noseworthy who then assessed the
perceived value of the bills, participants were asked to rate the value of the products they purchased on
thirteen 7-point items (anchored 1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree). Six of the items tapped
participants’ perceptions of product value (has consistent quality; is well made; has poor workmanship;
would not last long; would perform consistently; something I would enjoy) and seven items captured
participants’ perceptions of usage value (something that I would want to use; something that I would feel
relaxed about using; would give me pleasure; would help me to feel accepted; would improve the way I
Running Head: DOES DIRTY MONEY INFLUENCE PRODUCT VALUATIONS?
am perceived; would make a good impression on others; would give its owner social approval; adapted
from Di Muro & Noseworthy, 2013). Participants were then asked to record their general affective state
using the 20-item Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). The
questionnaire concluded with basic demographic questions.
At this point, participants were thanked for completing the survey and walked to the front of the
room. Upon which a confederate, who was unaware of the bill condition, approached the participants and
asked them to write down exactly what they would be willing to accept for each product if we were to buy
the products back. Participants were provided a small index card and a pen. The assistant then reviewed
the card before concluding it may not be necessary to buy the product back. The confederate then kept the
card and discharged the individuals from the lab.
Results and Discussion
A manipulation check confirmed that consumers rated the altered bills as more worn-out (M = 6.36;
SD = 1.15) than the unaltered bills (M = 2.56; SD = 1.79; t(70) = 10.71, p < .001, d = 2.53). Importantly,
despite the spending prioritization guise, this effect did not influence product selection. Specifically, a
selection index was created within subjects by subtracting the number of healthier choices from the
number of less healthy choices divided by the total basket of goods. The index was such that a negative
number implied healthier selections, whereas a positive number implied less healthy selections. The
results revealed that the physical state of the banknotes did not influence choice (MWorn = -.14 vs. MCrisp =
-.24, ns). Furthermore, the physical state of the banknotes did not influence participants’ affective state,
be it positive (MWorn = 3.08 vs. MCrisp = 3.07, ns) or negative (MWorn = 1.69 vs. MCrisp = 1.48, ns). Of
course, given the cash windfall, individuals were generally more positive (M = 3.06; SD = .61) than
negative (M = 1.59; SD = .58; t(71) = 14.22, p < .001, d = 2.48). Nevertheless, this suggests that any
observed change in valuation across the worn and crisp bills could not be attributed to participants’
affective state or their selection criterion.
Endowment was calculated as the discrepancy between what participants paid for an item and what
they were willing to accept in exchange for parting with the item. As hypothesized, the results confirmed
Running Head: DOES DIRTY MONEY INFLUENCE PRODUCT VALUATIONS?
that participants were more endowed in the crisp bill condition (M = .99; SD = 1.74) than in the worn bill
condition (M = .18; SD = .54; t(70) = -2.66, p < .05, d = .62). In fact, endowment did not significantly
differ from zero in the worn bill condition (t(70) = 1.96, ns). The prediction was that the physical state of
the banknotes was causing this effect. Consistent with the results of Di Muro and Noseworthy (2013), an
analysis of state-driven disgust (α = .71) revealed that participants were more disgusted by the worn
banknotes (M = 1.45; SD = .63) than by the crisp banknotes (M = 1.12; SD = .36; t(70) = 2.85, p < .01, d
= .67). To test whether disgust mediated the relationship between the physical state of money and
endowment, the indirect effect and the standard error of the indirect effect were estimated using a biascorrected bootstrap with 5,000 draws (MacKinnon, Lockwood, & Williams, 2004). Despite the absolute
means for disgust being relatively low, the results yielded a significant indirect effect of the physical state
of money on endowment through disgust (95% CI: .02, .34). However, the direct effect of physical state
on endowment remained significant (path c′; B = .67, SE = .32, p < .05).
The question that remains is whether this phenomenon results in a drop of perceived value for the
products that were purchased with the worn bills. Overall, there was no influence of the banknote’s
physical state on perceived ownership value (α = .86; MWorn = 3.94 vs. MCrisp = 3.81, ns). There was,
however, a significant difference in perceived product value (α = .76). Specifically, products purchased
with worn bills were seen as less valuable (M = 5.44; SD = .93) than products purchase with crisp bills (M
= 5.88; SD = .87; t(70) = -2.05, p < .05, d = .48). When perceived product value was added to the
mediation model as a serial mediator (Hayes 2012; model 6), the results yielded a significant indirect
effect of the physical state of money on endowment through disgust and then product value (95% CI: .37, -.01). This suggests that the drop in endowment was the result of heightened disgust for the worn
bills corresponding with a reduction in the perceived value of whatever the bills procured. These findings
confirm that the physical state of money can lower product valuations, and do so to such an extent that the
endowment effect does not manifest.
Although the findings are compelling, there is still the need to test whether this is truly the result of
contamination transferring from the bills to the products, or whether this is the result of disgust activating
Running Head: DOES DIRTY MONEY INFLUENCE PRODUCT VALUATIONS?
the goal to expel both the product and the money (Lerner et al., 2004). Di Muro and Noseworthy (2013)
found that explicitly conveying that worn money is sanitized can reduce state-driven disgust and
consequently nullify observed variations in spending. If the drop in product value is the result of pathogen
disgust transferring from touching the method of payment and then touching the products, then (1)
explicitly conveying the payment method is sterile should amend the contamination effect, which should
correspond with enhanced product value and endowment. Furthermore, if raising state-disgust lowers
selling prices by activating goals to expel, then (2) we should be able to replicate Lerner and colleagues
(2004) by merely making consumers disgusted; however, if this is the result of participants wanting to
expel, selling prices should indeed drop, but participants should not perceive the products as less valuable.
Study 2 was designed to test these predictions.
Study 2
Method
Participants (N = 112; 53.6% female, Mage = 23.58) were recruited on campus, and were randomly
assigned to one of four conditions in a 2 (physical appearance: worn vs. crisp) × 2 (instructions: control
vs. sanitized) between-subjects design. The procedures were consistent with study 1, with the following
key alterations.
First, what were positioned as University prepaid credit cards replaced the banknotes. The cards
were left unaltered in the crisp condition, whereas in the worn condition they were bent, scratched,
stained, and discolored. Each card was explicitly valued at $25. In the control condition, participants were
informed that they will pay with the card, but they will receive their change in cash. We explicitly stated
that this was necessary because the cards are recycled for each participant. This was a key instruction
given pretests revealed that inferences of use were not as normative for cards as for bills (which makes
sense given that cards rarely change hands).
In the sanitized condition, participants were given the card and informed of the following: “You
may notice that your credit card looks pretty worn out. This is the result of repeated use from the number
Running Head: DOES DIRTY MONEY INFLUENCE PRODUCT VALUATIONS?
of people going through this study. Given the amount of filth that was accumulating on the cards we have
been asked by the research ethics board to ensure that all cards are free of germs and bacteria; hence, all
credit cards have been thoroughly sterilized prior to this study” (script adapted from Di Muro &
Noseworthy, 2013; study 5). The concept of filth was explicitly conveyed following a pretest (n = 35)
which revealed that the explicit mention of filth due to repeated use led to disgust even when in the
context of remediating the filth. Participants were once again informed that they would keep all products
purchased as well as any leftover change from the transaction. As in study 1, upon finalizing the
transaction, participants completed a brief questionnaire and then responded to the willingness to accept
question before exiting the retail lab. All measures remained identical with study 1.
Results and Discussion
Manipulation Check – Physical Appearance
Consistent with the use of altered bills in study 1, consumers rated the altered credit cards as more
worn-out (M = 5.02) than the unaltered cards (M = 2.83; F(1, 108) = 38.72, p < .001, η2 = .26).
Importantly, the main effect of the sanitization manipulation on perceptions of wornness was not
significant (F(1, 108) = .51, ns). Neither was the physical appearance × sanitization interaction (F(1, 108)
= .04, ns). Furthermore, the manipulation of the cards did not influence participants’ affective state
(positive or negative, Fs < 1) or purchase selection (Fs < 2). As in study 1, participants were generally
more positive (M = 3.14) than negative (M = 1.46; F(1, 108) = 440.75, p < .001), and this pattern did not
vary by the sanitization manipulation (F(1, 108) = .02, ns) or appearance manipulation (F(1, 108) = .06,
ns). Hence, the manipulation of physical appearance worked as intended.
Endowment
A two-way ANOVA yielded a significant physical appearance × sanitization interaction on
endowment (F(1, 108) = 5.40, p < .05, η2 = .04). As illustrated in the table, simple effects revealed the
nature of the interaction was such that the influence of physical appearance varied by the sanitization
manipulation. Consistent with study 1, when participants were left to make their own inferences, they
Running Head: DOES DIRTY MONEY INFLUENCE PRODUCT VALUATIONS?
were more endowed in the crisp card condition (M = 1.06) than in the worn card condition (M = .26; F(1,
108) = 6.04, p < .05). Once again, endowment for participants who paid with a worn credit card did not
significantly differ from zero (t(27) = 1.38, ns). As predicted, this pattern did not manifest when
participants were informed that the cards were sanitized due to excessive use (MCrisp = .40 vs. MWorn =.67,
ns). In fact, the results reversed; when participants were informed that the worn card was sanitized, they
became endowed (t(27) = 3.32, p < .005). Critically, when participants were informed that the crisp card
was sanitized, endowment dropped to non-significance (t(27) = 1.83, ns). Another way of looking at this
is that participants were more endowed when they purchased products with the crisp credit card in the
control (M = 1.06) than when informed the card was sanitized due to excessive use (M = .40; F(1, 108) =
4.17, p < .05). Consistent with the pretest results, this finding supports that disgust may have been
brought to bear on the crisp card transaction even in the context of remediation. If so, we should see this
reflect in participants’ self-reported state.
Table: Means, Standard Deviations, and Cell Counts for Study 2
Control
Sanitization
.
Worn Card
Crisp Card
Worn Card
Crisp Card
Manipulation & Confound Checks
Perceived Wornness
Positive Affect
Negative Affect
Selection Index
5.17 (1.67)
3.19 (0.68)
1.46 (0.47)
-.71 (2.24)
2.93 (2.19)
3.21 (0.72)
1.54 (0.44)
-.54 (1.71)
4.87 (1.51)
3.08 (0.75)
1.40 (0.36)
-.14 (1.95)
2.75 (1.95)
3.09 (0.69)
1.43 (0.55)
-.21 (1.85)
Core Dependent Variables
Endowment
Disgust
Product Valuation
0.26 (1.02)
1.94 (1.18)
5.15 (1.03)
1.06 (1.52)
1.11 (0.24)
5.70 (0.74)
0.67 (1.07)
1.31 (0.41)
5.54 (0.89)
0.40 (1.16)
1.56 (0.78)
5.65 (0.70)
28
28
28
28
Cell Size
Note—Standard deviations are reported in parentheses; Selection Index = negative values indicate healthier choices, whereas
positive values indicate less healthy choices.
Disgust
A two-way ANOVA revealed a significant physical appearance × sanitization interaction on state
disgust (α = .88; F(1, 108) = 14.39, p < .001, η2 = .11). As expected, simple effects revealed that
Running Head: DOES DIRTY MONEY INFLUENCE PRODUCT VALUATIONS?
participants were more disgusted by the worn credit cards in the control (M = 1.94) than when informed
the worn cards were sanitized (M = 1.31; F(1, 108) = 9.79, p < .005). In step with the flip in endowment,
and in support of the pretest results, participants were more disgusted when informed the crisp credit
cards were sanitized (M = 1.56) than by the crisp cards in the control (M = 1.11; F(1, 108) = 4.99, p <
.05). This result suggests that the sanitization manipulation worked as intended; it offset inferences of
disgust in the worn condition, however, the prospect of filth through repeated use brought disgust to bear
on the transaction in the crisp condition. This lends an interesting avenue to explore whether we are truly
tapping transference from the source of payment to the product, or whether, consistent with Lerner and
colleagues (2004), we are merely tapping the ability for disgust to enhance goals of expelling. Only in the
control condition when participants used worn bills could they infer pathogen transfer. In the crisp
sanitized condition, participants were merely disgusted by the concept of filth through repeated use.
Hence, if we are indeed tapping contamination, this should be reflected in product valuations only in the
former, not the latter.
Perceived Product Value
In step with the results of study 1, a two-way ANOVA yielded a main effect of physical appearance
on perceived product value (α = .80); participants perceived the products purchased with worn cards as
less valuable (M = 5.34) than the products purchased with crisp cards (M = 5.68; F(1, 108) = 4.39, p <
.05, η2 = .03). Planned contrasts confirmed this effect was significant only in the control condition (MWorn
= 5.15 vs. MCrisp = 5.70; F(1, 108) = 5.95, p < .05), and not in the sanitization condition (MWorn = 5.54 vs.
MCrisp = 5.65, ns). A follow-up complex contrast comparing the worn card in the control condition against
a linear combination of all other cells revealed it was the only condition to record a significant decline in
valuation (MWorn-Control = 5.15 vs. MsCombined = 5.63; FΨ(1, 108) = 6.74, p < .05). No other contrasts
approached significance. Although the observed effects were not as strong as in study 1 (when using
actual bills), the results confirmed the role of contamination in lowering product value. Consistent with
Lerner and colleagues (2004), perceived disgust dropped selling prices across the board; however, only
when participants inferred contamination did they see the products that they purchased as less valuable.
Running Head: DOES DIRTY MONEY INFLUENCE PRODUCT VALUATIONS?
General Discussion
Given the recent economic recession, there has been considerable media attention around the need
to increase domestic spending in the US. There has also been discussion on the need to decrease
government spending. Indeed, like the recession itself, these concerns are global. It costs approximately
nine cents to create a new banknote in the US (US Treasury, 2011). This may not seem like much, but in
2007 alone, the US printed 9.1 billion banknotes (US Treasury, 2011). Some estimates clock currency
production at 38 million bills per day at a value of $541 million (US Treasury, 2011). The sheer cost in
volume sits at the forefront of the Federal debate about whether the US should even have a dollar bill, as
opposed to a dollar coin, which could last up to 25 years despite a higher cost in production (Atlanta
Federal Reserve, 2008). The results from recent work suggests the Fed may be better served, both in
terms of domestic spending and currency production costs, by leaving worn bills in circulation (Di Muro
& Noseworthy, 2013). Indeed, the Fed may be better served, but the results of this study suggest the
consumer may not be. Hence, with the recent interest in exploring the effects of dirty money on
consumption behavior (e.g., Di Muro & Noseworthy, 2013; Yang et al., 2013), the results caution that
researchers should not ignore the consumable itself.
Evidence from two studies suggests that the act of purchasing products with dirty money can lower
product valuations. Importantly, although commensurate, the results cannot be solely attributed to goals
of expelling (Lerner et al., 2004) or changes in behavioral tendencies (Yang et al., 2013). Consistent with
the findings from Learner and colleagues (2004), disgust indeed reduced selling prices across the board,
however, only in cases where participants could infer transference, did disgust from worn currency drop
product valuations. Similarly, consistent with Yang and colleagues (2013), disgust altered behavior and
associative inferences; however, if the results were solely due to associative norms governing the use of
worn bills, then the sanitization manipulation should not have curbed the loss in valuation. Furthermore,
we observed no changes in product preference. An alternate explanation could have been that the bills
prime choice behavior (e.g., vice versus virtue), thus people put less value on vices than on more virtuous
purchases. Although this would be equally fascinating, we were unable to observe any changes in
Running Head: DOES DIRTY MONEY INFLUENCE PRODUCT VALUATIONS?
purchase behavior by product type. This should not deter future research from exploring this hypothesis.
Indeed, the lack of difference, although also observed by Di Muro and Noseworthy, could be because we
used food as opposed to something more durable.
The results raise an interesting explanatory variable that has yet to be considered in recent articles
on dirty money. Di Muro and Noseworthy (2013) controlled the price of their products; hence, it is not
that people spent more with dirty money, but that they purchased more. This is an important distinction,
because it highlights some of the issues with using ratio scales in consumer research. The zeros that were
averaged into the spending data were not a value estimate, but instead they were a behavioral estimate
demonstrating no desire to buy. Indeed, although the focus of the current work was not on spending, pilot
data revealed participants tended to spend the same amount when they spent anything; they were just
more likely to spend in the worn condition, which is consistent with Lerner and Colleague’s (2004) notion
of expelling. This is a very different interpretation than the one offered by Di Muro and Noseworthy
(2013). Hence, could it be that people purchase more goods with dirty money to offset the diminished
utility? This is an important question that needs to be answered. Similarly, in Yang and colleague’s
(2013) work, farmers given dirty money would cheat customers by giving less than 500 grams of
produce. Could it be that it was not so much that they gave less, but that they gave what was of equivalent
utility to the bills? This too would be an interesting avenue for future exploration. The estimated utility
derived from worn currency could go a long way in explaining current theoretical accounts.
Finally, it is worth pointing out that the effects in study 2 were notably smaller than the effects in
study 1. This would seemingly support Di Muro and Noseworthy’s (2013) assertion about normative
beliefs involving dirty money. Indeed, some of the pretest work revealed these norms are not perfectly
reflected in credit card use. That said, the results demonstrate that inferences of filth can operate on
alternate vehicles for economic exchange, and that these inferences can lead people to put less value on
the things they purchase. Researchers have dominantly looked at consumption behavior. The fact that the
characteristics of the payment system can alter behavior suggests that much of the current understanding
of product preference may vary, if even slightly, by the state of payment. The implications for this on a
Running Head: DOES DIRTY MONEY INFLUENCE PRODUCT VALUATIONS?
myriad of consumption related behaviors could be profound. Certainly more research is needed in this
area.
Running Head: DOES DIRTY MONEY INFLUENCE PRODUCT VALUATIONS?
Appendix
Pretested Less Healthy Options
Pretested Healthier Options
Coca-Cola, 710ml
Canada Dry Gingerale, 710ml
Sprite, 710ml
Coca-Cola, 2L
Canada Dry Gingerale, 2L
Mars Candy Bar, 1 item
Twix Candy Bar, 1 item
Kit Kat Candy Bar, 1 item
Mr. Big Candy Bar, 1 item
Cinnamon Toast Crunch, 1 box
French Toast Crunch, 1 box
Nesquik Chocolate Cereal, 1 box
Lucky Charms, 1 box
Reese’s Puffs, 1 box
Doritos, 1 bag
Ruffles Original, 1 bag
Cheetos Puffs, 1 bag
Chips Ahoy Chocolate Cookies, 1 bag
Oreo Cookies, 1 bag
Fudgee-O Cookies, 1 bag
Aquafina+ Vitamins Water, 591ml
Nestle Splash, Flavoured Water, 500ml
Dasani Water, 710ml
Allen’s Apple Juice, 1L
Allen’s Fruit Punch, 1L
Fibre 1 Bar- Oats and Chocolate
Fibre 1 Bar- Chocolate Peanut Butter
Nature Valley Bar- Fruit and Nut
Nature Valley Bar- Trail Mix
Plain Cheerios, 1 box
Multigrain Cheerios, 1 box
Rice Krispies, 1 box
Oatmeal Crisp, 1 box
Mini Wheat’s Original, 1 box
Smartfood, 1 bag
Baked Lays Original, 1 bag
Pretzels, 1 bag
Nutri-Grain Bar, 1 box
Nature Valley Bar, 1 box
Lifestyle Brand Cookies, 1 box
Running Head: DOES DIRTY MONEY INFLUENCE PRODUCT VALUATIONS?
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Running Head: IT AINT EASY BEING GREEN: UNINTENDED EFFECTS OF THE COLOUR
GREEN
It Ain’t Easy Being Green:
Unintended Effects of the Colour Green
Ethan Pancer, St.Mary’s University, Canada
Lindsay McShane, Carleton University, Canada
Abstract
We examine the unintended effects of green-colored products and packaging. Across three
experiments, we demonstrate that green products that lack legitimizing environmental information are
perceived as more misleading and of lower quality, and also subject to reduced purchase intentions. We
find that this ‘greenwashing discount’ is mitigated by consumer education and ecologo certification.
Running Head: IT AINT EASY BEING GREEN: UNINTENDED EFFECTS OF THE COLOUR
GREEN
In recent years, there has been a marked increase in the general public’s awareness of and
concern for environmental issues. This upward shift in environmental awareness and concern has led to
distinct changes in the corporate landscape, where an increasing number of companies are adapting to the
public’s demands for more ethical and environmentally-responsible business practices (Franklin 2008).
One particularly notable outcome of this adaptive process is the increased availability of
“environmentally-responsible” products.
At first glance, the introduction of more environmental products would seem to facilitate the
practice of sustainable consumption. And, yet, there are two core challenges that continue to plague this
practice – one on the consumer side and one on the corporate side. The challenge on the consumer side is
the pervasive gap between intentions and behaviors, whereby consumers consistently state a high level of
concern for environmental issues (and a high corresponding intention to purchase environmental
products), that is not reflected in their actual purchase behavior. In fact, a Neilsen report finds that “83
percent of global online consumers say that it is important that companies implement programs to
improve the environment, but only 22 percent say they will pay more for an eco-friendly product” (2011,
p. 7). The challenge on the corporate side is the prevalence of greenwashing (i.e., the marketing of
misleading environmental claims). A recent report by TerraChoice finds that 95% of products labeled as
“environmentally responsible” engage in some form of greenwashing (2010). These two challenges are
interconnected – greenwashing actions are likely to further deteriorate consumers’ willingness to believe
environmental claims, which further increases the green intention-behavior gap.
A critical step in overcoming these hurdles is to develop a better understanding of consumers’
perceptions of and responses to environmental products. Whereas previous work typically treats these
consumer and corporate issues as distinct from one another (e.g., Luchs, Naylor, Irwin, and Raghunathan
2010), we believe that it is important to understand how greenwashing influences consumers’ perceptions
of and responses to products that are portrayed as environmental. We take steps to address this issue in
the current work by examining how the perceived illegitimacy of environmental claims (i.e., the extent to
Running Head: IT AINT EASY BEING GREEN: UNINTENDED EFFECTS OF THE COLOUR
GREEN
which they are perceived as employing greenwashing tactics) influences product quality perceptions.
While greenwashing can take on many forms (Greenwashing Index 2012), we focus the current research
on the presence of green imagery, and more specifically, the color green.
Across three experiments, we find that products that are portrayed as “environmentally-friendly”
(e.g., the product is green in color) without substantiating information (e.g., an eco-logo) are perceived as
lower in quality than other identical non-green products based on a discounting process. However, we
find that this discounting effect is moderated by both the consumers’ motivation to systematically process
the product information (i.e., their level of involvement in environmental issues) and their cognitive
capacity. Taken together, our results both offer compelling evidence that consumers’ greenwashing
perceptions play a critical role in shaping product quality perceptions and, more generally, provide
meaningful insight as to the complex relationship between perceptions of environmental legitimacy and
product quality.
To our knowledge, we are the first to experimentally demonstrate the unintended negative effects
of the appearance of green-colored products, where consumers can be skeptical of products that look to be
trying to convey an environmental image without substantiating information. We also test and explain the
underlying process through which this occurs – a discounting effect stemming from systematic
processing. Finally, we examine strategies that inhibit discounting by legitimating ‘green’ products. In the
following section, we review the relevant literature on both consumers’ perceptions of and responses to
sustainable products and greenwashing. We then develop specific predictions about how the perceived (il)
legitimacy of environmental claims influence consumers’ perceptions of product quality and then present
the results of three between-subjects experiments. Finally, we discuss the implications of our work, and
also identify potential avenues for future research.
Literature Review and Conceptual Development
Consumer Perceptions of and Responses to Sustainable Products
It is well-established in the literature that there is great disparity between the mandate for ethical
and environmental practices that consumers (and media) are conveying to companies and their actual
Running Head: IT AINT EASY BEING GREEN: UNINTENDED EFFECTS OF THE COLOUR
GREEN
consumption behavior (e.g., Auger, Burke, Devinney and Louviere 2003; Auger and Devinney 2007;
Devinney, Auger and Eckhardt 2010). The issue that is less understood, however, is why such a gap
exists. Recent work has begun to examine this issue, shedding light on the complexities underlying
consumers’ responses to sustainable products. Devinney, Auger and Eckhardt (2010), for instance, find
that consumers do believe that it is important to be ethical consumers, but are able to rationalize their nonethical purchases by attributing their behavior to certain barriers (e.g., a lack of time and money) or, in
other cases, by asserting their dependency on the government to regulate business practices. Hopkins
(2009) similarly highlights lack of resources as a contributor to the gap, and also identifies lack of
awareness and limited choices as additional barriers that affect sustainable purchase behavior.
Other work suggests, however, that the gap may also stem both from consumers’ perceptions of
how sustainability relates to other product attributes (Luchs, Brower and Chitturi 2010) and from the
associations that consumers hold about ethical products (Luchs, Naylor, Irwin, and Raghunathan 2010).
With regards to the former, Luchs, Brower and Chitturi (2010) find that consumers tend to opt for a
superior functional product over a superior sustainable product and, more generally, demand that a
sustainable product meet a minimum standard for functionality. With regards to the latter, Luchs, Naylor,
Irwin, and Raghunathan (2010) find that consumers typically associate ethicality with gentleness-related
attributes, and so they tend to prefer sustainable products when they value such attributes but prefer nonethical products when they value strength-related attributes.
Consistent across this extant research is the idea that consumers’ responses to sustainable
products are more complex than an assessment of whether the product is or is not environmentallyresponsible. Rather, these studies suggest that consumers, upon seeing ethical product claims, make
inferences about the product along several dimensions. As such, their decision to engage in sustainable
consumption incorporates many considerations such as the various trade-offs involved in acquiring
sustainable products (e.g., costs and convenience: Devinney, Auger and Eckhardt 2010; functionality:
Luchs, Brower and Chitturi 2010; product strength: Luchs, Naylor, Irwin, and Raghunathan 2010) and the
extent to which they have a responsibility to do so (Devinney, Auger and Eckhardt 2010).
Running Head: IT AINT EASY BEING GREEN: UNINTENDED EFFECTS OF THE COLOUR
GREEN
Further capturing the complexity of this issue, additional work suggests that sustainable
consumption is not only influenced by consumers’ inferences about how sustainability, as a product
attribute, relates to other product attributes but also by how the environmental claims are portrayed (e.g.,
Chang 2011). This work is particularly relevant to the current research and so we now turn to discuss it,
and the related greenwashing literature, in more detail.
Greenwashing
Greenwashing refers to situations where an organization’s priority is to appear environmental with
less emphasis on engaging in (and communicating) actual sustainable business practices (Laufer 2003).
According to the Greenwashing Index, a consumer education initiative from EnviroMedia Social
Marketing and the University of Oregon, it more generally involves misleading consumers through the
use of green rhetoric and language, environmental imagery, vague claims, exaggerations, and/or onesided positive arguments such that consumers have difficulty differentiating between genuine and
disingenuous claims. Environmentally-friendly product marketing has become a prevalent phenomenon,
as many companies strive to gain legitimacy and comply with the norms and expectations of their
stakeholders (Handelman and Arnold 1999). In fact, a recent study by TerraChoice (2010) found that the
rate of products advertising themselves as ‘green’ increased by 73% between 2009 and 2010, and that the
majority of these product claims involve some form of greenwashing. The rise of such practices
represents a growing need to understand how such actions influence consumers’ responses to products
portrayed as environmentally-responsible.
Much of the research on greenwashing to date has examined the issue from a public policy and/or
strategic level, investigating corporate strategies to reduce greenwashing (e.g., Prakash 2002), policies for
addressing the prevalence of such actions (e.g., Laufer 2003; Lyon and Maxwell 2006) and, relatedly,
defining the parameters of the phenomenon (Ramus and Montiel 2005). Remarkably, there is relatively
scant research that has directly considered consumers’ perceptions of products that appear
environmentally-friendly: Do consumers infer greenwashing motives from simple, product-based cues?
Running Head: IT AINT EASY BEING GREEN: UNINTENDED EFFECTS OF THE COLOUR
GREEN
What is the process through which this occurs? As it stands, we have a limited understanding of how the
legitimacy of environmental claims affects consumers’ product perceptions and the unintended
consequences associated with this process.
The little work that does exist on this topic suggests that greenwashing perceptions are important
to consumers’ corporate evaluations. Vaccaro and Echeverri (2010), for instance, find that less transparent
environmental policies result in lower willingness to collaborate on environmental initiatives than those
that are more transparent. Along similar lines, Chang (2011) finds that both the perceived believability of
the ad and the green claim influence consumers’ product evaluations, where disbelief in green claims
results in more negative product evaluations. Although not directly related, the literature on consumer
skepticism and deceptive advertising is consistent with these results as well, demonstrating that deceptive
advertising has significant negative consequences for the firm (e.g., consumer distrust: Pollay 1986;
Darke and Ritchie 2007; Main, Dahl, and Darke 2007). We argue that a green-colored product can be
perceived as a particular form of unsubstantiated environmental deception and, drawing on this extant
work , thus expect such actions to negatively influence consumers’ evaluations.
Taken together then, this extant research on both greenwashing perceptions and deceptive
advertising suggest a general need to better understand how perceptions of greenwashing impact
consumers’ product perceptions. We now turn to consider this issue in more detail, focusing specifically
on how the (il) legitimacy of environmental claims (i.e., the use of the color green) influences product
quality perceptions.
Greenwashing and Quality Perceptions
The limited work that has been done on consumers’ greenwashing perceptions suggests that such
perceptions may be important in shaping consumers’ products judgments. To examine this issue, we first
turn to conducted study by Chang (2011), which finds that consumers who are ambivalent about
sustainable products form more negative product evaluations when they believe that the firm exerted a
high-level of effort in developing the “green claim”. We argue that this inference of effort can also be
understood through the lens of greenwashing, where certain inherent product cues (in this case effort) can
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stimulate thoughts regarding the company motives to appear environmentally-friendly. Following, the
product is tainted by the seemingly-misleading tactics, thus reducing product preference. Building on this
interpretation, we argue that greenwashing perceptions motivate consumers to more closely scrutinize the
product, thus leading them to discount quality. More specifically, we predict that when a product is
portrayed as environmentally-friendly (i.e., employs greenwashing tactics like use of the color green)
without sufficient credibility, consumers will perceive the product as having lower quality relative to both
products that make legitimate claims and those that make no environmental claims. This prediction is
consistent with prior studies that show that perceptions of quality can be influenced by intrinsic product
attribute cues (e.g., Monroe and Krishnan 1985). However, the presence of information that legitimizes
the environmental claim (e.g., an eco-logo is placed on a product that is green in color) should mitigate
these effects by reducing the likelihood that consumers will perceive the green color as a greenwashing
tactic. As such, we predict that:
H1a: Consumers will perceive green-colored products as lower in quality than identical nongreen products.
H1b: The presence of information that legitimizes the green-colored product will moderate the
effect predicted in H1a, mitigating the difference between green and non-green colored products.
We also propose that the effects of green-colored products will go beyond influencing
perceptions of product quality, also having a meaningful indirect influence on purchase intentions.
Perceptions of quality have long been theorized to be an intervening construct to understand purchase
intentions (see Zeithaml 1988). Chang and Wildt (1994) empirically demonstrated that perceptions of
quality have a direct effect on purchase intentions, as well as an indirect effect through perceived value
(which incorporates pricing information). As such, we make the following moderated mediation
prediction:
H2: Green product color will have a conditional indirect effect on purchase intentions through
perceptions of product quality in the absence of legitimizing information.
The “Greenwashing Discount” and Information Processing
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The premise of Hypothesis 1 is that greenwashing attempts (i.e., use of the color green without
substantiating information) tarnish consumers’ product quality perceptions. Specifically, the argument is
that greenwashing tactics lead consumers to engage in an effortful process whereby the product becomes
tainted and so product quality is discounted. This is consistent with Chang (2009; 2011), which suggests
that consumers engage in motivated processing that leads them to discount the believability of both the ad
and the “green claim”, which subsequently reduces product evaluations. Implicit in this logic, however, is
the assumption that consumers are cognitively able to scrutinize (i.e., systematically process) the
information. This assumption however, raises the question of how the “greenwashing discount” may vary
depending on how the green product information is processed. To investigate this issue, we turn to the
heuristic-systematic model (HSM) of information processing (Chaiken, Liberman and Eagly 1989).
The HSM is a well-established dual-process model which argues that there are two general modes
of processing that individuals may use when forming judgments – heuristic and systematic. Heuristic
processing is relatively less effortful, relying on simple cues to form judgments. Systematic processing,
by contrast, involves more in-depth scrutiny of judgment-relevant information. While the HSM argues
that these modes may co-occur, it suggests that systematic processing requires both sufficient cognitive
ability and motivation to engage in the more cognitively effortful process (Chen and Chaiken 1999;
Chaiken, Liberman and Eagly 1989).
Drawing on this model, we thus expect the discounting effect of greenwashing, triggered by the
unsubstantiated use of the color green, on product quality to vary depending on the cognitive ability and
motivation of the consumer. First, with regards to cognitive ability, we expect the predictions outlined in
Hypothesis 1a to hold only in cases where consumers have sufficient cognitive resources to devote
towards the judgment-formation process. In cases where they lack sufficient resources to engage in
systematic processing, we expect consumers to be less likely to discount, making them more vulnerable to
green product appearances. The logic here is based on the idea discussed previously - that extrapolating
on greenwashing information to make inferences about the product itself (i.e., that it is of low quality)
requires cognitive effort. As such, when cognitive resources are constrained, consumers should be unable
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to translate the greenwashing information into meaningful information about the product. The result is
that they are less likely to discount product quality based on the illegitimate environmental claim.
Importantly, however, based on the HSM, we do expect the predicted effects of cognitive
capacity to be further moderated by the consumers’ motivation to process the information. When
consumers do have the cognitive resources available to process the information, we expect the deleterious
effects of greenwashing on product quality to be exacerbated for those who are highly motivated to
scrutinize the message (i.e., those who are dispositionally more involved in environmental issues). The
rationale here is that highly motivated consumers, who are also cognitively able, will be particularly
likely to devote cognitive resources towards processing the judgment-relevant information, and
subsequently draw product-level inferences based on the greenwashing tactic (i.e., view the product as
tainted).
H3a: When consumers have cognitive resources available to them, consumers high in
involvement in environmental issues will perceive products with illegitimate environmental claims as
having lower quality than those with low involvement.
In contrast, when the green claims are legitimate (i.e., using color green with substantiating
information), the highly involved consumers should perceive the product as having higher quality than
those who are less involved in environmental issues. The logic here is that those who are more involved
in the environment are expected to hold more positive associations with environmental products, and
essentially view such legitimate environmental products as affirming values that are important to them.
H3b: When consumers have cognitive resources available to them, consumers who are more
involved in environmental issues will perceive products with legitimate environmental claims as having
higher quality than those with who are less involved.
The nature of judgment formation changes when cognitive resources are constrained. We expect
the “greenwashing discount” demonstrated by those high in environmental involvement to be mitigated.
That is, we predict the “greenwashing discount” to be smaller (i.e., less likely to reduce product quality
perceptions) when consumers who are highly involved in environmental issues do not have the cognitive
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resources to process the product information as compared to when they are not constrained. The logic
here, as noted earlier, is that constraining the cognitive ability of these consumers reduces their ability to
interpret the greenwashing information in terms of what it means for the product. Similarly, we also
expect the positive effect of legitimate environmental claims on perceptions of quality for highly involved
consumers to be mitigated. In these cases, consumers have a limited ability to interpret this legitimacy as
favorable product information, thus reducing the extent to which highly involved consumers are able to
consider the product in terms of its alignment with their personal values. Accordingly, we predict:
H4a: Consumers who are highly involved in environmental issues are less likely to discount
product quality based on illegitimate green claims when they are cognitively constrained (vs. not
constrained).
H4b: The exacerbating effect of legitimate environmental claims on perceptions of product
quality for highly involved consumers will be reduced when they are cognitively constrained (vs. not
constrained).
Method
Study Overview
We conducted three experiments to test different elements of our predictions. First, we examined
whether the mere fact that a product was green in color would create perceptions that the product was of
lower quality than identical non-green products (H1a). We also tested whether legitimizing the
environmental claim by informing consumers that environmentally-responsible products were becoming
more available in the marketplace would mitigate this greenwashing discount (H1b) and whether the color
green has a conditional indirect effect on purchase intentions via quality perceptions (H2). In Study 2, we
conceptually replicated our findings from Study 1, operationalizing green appearance using product
packaging instead of natural product color and legitimizing the green claim through the presence of an
ecologo instead of additional marketplace information. We also shifted the context to a different
consumer-goods product category. Finally, Study 3 tested the prediction that both consumers’ cognitive
ability and motivation to systematically process the judgment-relevant information would influence
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product quality perceptions (H3 and H4). Specifically, we tested whether an illegitimate green claim
would exacerbate the deleterious effects of perceived greenwashing on product quality for those both
cognitively able and motivated to process the claim (H3a) and whether a legitimate claim would lead to
higher product quality perceptions for those same consumers (H3b). Further, we tested the prediction that
constraining the cognitive resources of such highly involved consumers would mitigate these effects (H4a
and H4b).
Study 1
Study 1 was designed to test whether consumers’ perceptions of product quality could indeed be
affected by the presence of green imagery (i.e., the color green). Specifically, we wanted to obtain
evidence that, even when all other aspects of the product were identical, the fact that the product was
green in color could taint inferences about the effectiveness of the product. We also wanted to test the
prediction that information legitimizing the greenness of the product (i.e., suggesting that the green color
is a legitimate environmental claim) mitigates the deleterious effect of the colour green on product quality
perceptions.
Experimental Design and Procedure
Ninety-seven students participated in a 2 (Product Color: green vs. orange) X 2 (Prime:
environmental vs. neutral) between-subjects factorial design in return for course credit. Participants were
told that they were going to complete two studies – a memory judgment task and a product evaluation
task. In fact, the first study was a prime, whereby participants were asked to read an excerpt from a recent
press release about either the rising prevalence of sustainable products (environmental prime) or an
upcoming choir performance at the local theatre (neutral prime) (See Appendix A). The basic premise
was that the environmental prime, by highlighting the increasing availability of truly sustainable products,
would enhance the perceived legitimacy of environmental claims. Notably, the appearance of these
primes was controlled regarding selected font, font size, length and general layout of the message.
After reading the press release excerpt, participants were told they would later answer some
general questions about the article. In the interim, they were asked to complete an ostensibly unrelated
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product evaluation study. Each participant was then shown a bottle of Dawn dish soap. We chose
dishwashing soap as our focal product in this study because quality is generally measured along one
central domain (i.e., ability to clean dishes) and it is not consumed in the public domain, mitigating
impression management concerns associated with green products (Griskevicius, Tybur and Van den
Bergh 2010). The bottles of dish soap were identical in every aspect except that half the participants saw
green soap and the other half saw orange soap (see Appendix B). Notably, product color was not
manipulated in image-editing software; the colors presented were real offerings from the brand.
We predicted that participants in the green condition would perceive the Dawn soap as lower in
quality than those in the orange condition (H1a), and therefore be less willing to purchase, consider
purchasing, or mention this product to others (H2). The logic here is that the green color triggers
greenwashing perceptions, and thus taints product perceptions. However, within conditions where
participants were shown the green soap, we expected the discounting effect of color on product quality to
be mitigated for those in the environmental prime condition (H1b). In a sense, information that
environmentally-friendly products are becoming more prevalent in the marketplace (with no mention of
quality) should legitimize green offerings and mitigate quality differences based on product color.
Following product exposure, participants were asked a series of questions on perceptions of
product quality, likelihood to purchase the product and their general beliefs about the product. Perceptions
of product quality were measured using three items (α = .80), which included the extent to which they
believed the dish soap was a quality product, effective, or of poor quality [reverse-scored]. Purchase
intent was captured with two items (α = .83), which included likelihood that they would either purchase
this product or consider purchasing this product. We also measured consumers’ believability of green
claims using an adapted measure from Chang (2011) that consisted of two items (α = .89): ‘the green
claims that this product makes are not believable’ and ‘are misleading’.
Results and Discussion
Manipulation Check. The predicted influence of the color green on product quality perceptions is
based on the expectation that the environmental imagery inherent in the use of this color triggers
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perceptions of greenwashing. As such, a critical step was to first examine whether manipulating product
color did in fact influence participants’ greenwashing perceptions. An ANOVA showed the expected
main effect of Product Color on believability of green claims (F(1,95) = 4.91, p < .05). The green dish
soap was perceived as making more misleading and non-believable environmental claims than the nongreen (i.e., orange) soap (Ms = 4.42 vs. 3.66). This supports our theorizing that green-colored products
left unsubstantiated by environmental claims increase perceptions of greenwashing.
Main Analysis. A 2x2 ANOVA revealed the expected interaction of Product Color and Prime on
the participants’ perceptions of quality (F(1,93) = 3.92, p = .05). Consistent with Hypothesis 1a , followup analysis, showed that participants presented with neutral prime, perceived the green soap as having
significantly lower quality than the identical non-green soap (Ms = 5.27 vs. 5.73, F(1,47) = 4.47, p < .05).
This difference remained significant even when we covaried out color preference data from the analysis.
However, consistent with hypothesis 1b when participants were instead exposed to an environmental
prime stating that there is a growing availability of environmentally-responsible products available, the
difference was no longer significant (Ms= 5.38 vs. 5.15, F(1,46) = .72, p > .05).
Notably, we were also interested in examining the predicted conditional indirect effects of
product color on consumers’ likelihood to purchase the product, via their influence on perceptions of
product quality. To test this, we used PROCESS, a versatile computational tool for observed variable
moderated mediation (Hayes 2012). This is referred to as moderated mediation, because the indirect
effect or mechanism pathway through which X exerts it effect on Y is dependent on the value of a
moderator. Our particular model estimates the conditional indirect effects of Product Color (X) on
purchase intentions (Y) through perceptions of product quality (M), moderated by Prime (W). This model
generates bias corrected 95% bootstrap confidence intervals for the conditional indirect effects using
1,000 bootstrap samples.
When presented with the neutral prime, the confidence intervals surrounding the indirect effect of
perceived quality did not span zero, consistent with an interpretation of a statistically significant indirect
effect (point estimate: -.31; CI95%: -.60 to -.04). This means that there is a conditional indirect effect on
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purchase intentions, such that an unsubstantiated green product (i.e., green soap) leads to significantly
lower purchase intentions than an identical non-green product. However, when presented with the
environmental prime, the confidence intervals do span zero, representative of a non-significant indirect
effect (point estimate: .16; CI95%: -.25 to .50). The mediation analysis is consistent with the notion that
green color, as greenwashing cue, is used by consumers to infer lower product quality, which in turn,
decreases purchase intentions (H2). This path did not hold for in conditions where consumers were
presented with information that legitimized the green color (i.e., environmental prime conditions).
Study 2
The purpose of experiment 2 was to conceptually replicate the findings from our first experiment,
thereby enhancing the robustness of our effects. In the previous experiment, product color was
operationalized using the color of the soap product itself, which was visible through the transparent bottle.
In experiment 2, however, we manipulated product color through more subtle product packaging cues as
opposed to actual product color. It is plausible for consumers to believe that green is not the natural color
of dish soap, requiring additives to make it look green, which take away from its effectiveness. This
would suggest a rival quality-driven mechanism to our theorizing based on green products being
associated with greenwashing, which taints the product. To address this possible confound, we shifted the
product category from dish soap to laundry detergent and altered the product packaging color as opposed
to the inherent color of the product. In addition, we wanted to change the way we operationalized the
legitimation of environmental products to be more ecologically valid. As such, instead of priming
participants about the growing availability of green products, we manipulated the presence or absence of a
certified ecologo.
Experimental Design and Procedures
One hundred and fifteen students participated in a 2 (Product Color: green vs. blue) X 2 (Ecologo
Presence: present vs. absent) between-subjects factorial design in exchange for course credit. Participants
were informed that the study was a brief product evaluation study and then shown a standard container of
Tide laundry detergent. The containers were identical across conditions except that we varied whether the
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color of both the cap and the small triangle label was green or blue and whether there was an eco-logo on
the bottom right side of the bottle (refer to Appendix B). Again, the color variant was not manipulated in
image-editing software; colors represented real offerings from the brand. For the eco-logo, we used the
certified logo of the Ecologo Program. Ecologo is a respected environmental standards organization with
benchmarks for green practices fully disclosed on their website. Similar to experiment 1, participants
were then asked to indicate their beliefs about this product’s quality as well as their likelihood to engage
in several behaviors. Measures of product quality (α = .91) and purchase intent (α = .93) were created
from the same items as experiment 1.
Results and Discussion
A 2x2 ANOVA revealed a significant interaction of Product Color and Ecologo Presence on
participants’ perceptions of product quality (F(1,111) = 6.51, p <.05). Follow-up analysis revealed, as
expected, that within the eco-logo absent conditions, participants perceived green products as having
significantly lower quality than the identical non-green product (in this case blue) (Ms = 5.67 vs. 6.04,
F(1,65) = 3.74, p = .05). However, when we introduced an ecologo, this difference was no longer
significant. These results are consistent with our predictions that products that are green in color are likely
to be tainted by greenwashing perceptions, and thus deemed lower in quality, unless such claims are
legitimized (in this case by the presence of an eco-logo) (H1a and H1b). Follow-up analysis also
demonstrated a significant difference in perceived quality perceptions within the green color conditions.
Specifically, the results showed that within these conditions, the presence of an eco-logo increased
participants’ perceptions of product quality compared to when the eco-logo was absent (Ms = 5.67 vs.
6.12, F(1,53) = 4.30, p < .05). In contrast, there was no significant difference in quality inferences across
the presence of absence of an ecologo for the non-green product. This is consistent with the idea that
adding legitimizing information to green products mitigates the greenwashing discount.
Following this analysis, we then conducted a mediation analysis to test the conditional indirect
effects of Product Color (X) on purchase intentions (Y) through perceptions of product quality (M),
moderated by Ecologo Presence (W). Ninety-five percent bias-corrected and accelerated confidence
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intervals were calculated for the indirect effect, based on 1,000 bootstrap resamples. When the ecologo
was absent, the confidence intervals surrounding the indirect effect of perceived quality did not span zero,
consistent with an interpretation of a statistically significant indirect effect (point estimate: -.34; CI95%: .76 to -.04). This result supports the predicted conditional indirect effect of Product Color on purchase
intentions via perceived product quality, suggesting that a product with green packaging and no eco-logo
(i.e., an unsubstantiated environmental claim) leads to significantly lower purchase intentions than an
identical non-green product (H2). We also found a conditional indirect effect of Product Color on
purchase intentions such that a green-packaged product with an eco-logo leads to significantly higher
purchase intentions than an identical green product that lacks the eco-logo (point estimate: .41; CI95%: .02
to .88).
Experiment 3
Studies 1 and 2 provide evidence that green-colored products are perceived as having lower
quality than identical non-green products, unless such environmental imagery is legitimized. Having
established the robustness of this effect across different products (i.e., dishwashing soap and laundry
detergent), different operationalizations of green (i.e., green product and green packaging) and different
operationalizations of legitimacy (i.e., environmental prime and ecologo), the focus of this final study was
to examine the prediction that both consumers’ cognitive ability and motivation to systematically process
the environmental claim influence their product quality perceptions. More specifically, the purpose was to
explicitly test the assumption that the discounting effect of green claims on product quality perceptions
occurs via systematic processing, requiring both cognitive ability and motivation. Also, whereas our early
studies dichotomized the legitimation of green products (i.e., either legitimate or not - neutral prime or no
logo), we designed this study to facilitate an examination of legitimization along a spectrum. We did so
by varying the size of a certified ecologo on the product image, whereby larger ecologos are expected to
be associated with more deliberate intentions to signal one’s environmental-friendliness, which is a
greenwashing cue.
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Experimental Design and Procedures
One hundred and eleven students participated in a 2 (Cognitive Load: low vs. high) X 2 (Ecologo
Size: standard vs. large) X 2 (Involvement in Environmental Issues: low vs. high) between-subjects
factorial design in return for course credit. Participants were told that the purpose of this study was to test
their ability to memorize and were shown a number that they were asked to memorize (not to be written
down). At this point, we operationalized cognitive load by varying the number of digits that participants
were asked to memorize (e.g. Gilbert and Osbourne 1989). Those in the low cognitive load condition
were asked to memorize a 2 digit number and those in the high condition a 10 digit number. Participants
were told that they would have to record this number at the end of the research session and, in the interim,
that they would complete a short product evaluation study. Then, participants were exposed to the ecologo size manipulation. Specifically, each participant was shown an image of an individual Duracell
battery in the centre and an ecologo presented in the bottom-right corner (not on the product). The
ecologo was either a standard size or 50% larger than standard.
Similar to earlier experiments, participants were then asked to indicate their beliefs about this
product’s quality as well as their likelihood to engage in purchase behaviors (using the same measures as
in the previous studies). We also measured their perceived involvement in environmental issues.
Perceptions of involvement in environmental involvement was captured using an adapted version of
Mohr, Eroglu, and Ellen’s measure of environmental knowledge (1998), which included 4 items (α =
.84): I know I buy products that are environmentally safe; I know more about recycling than the average
person; I understand environmental phrases and symbols on product packages; and I am very
knowledgeable about environmental issues. We use this measure to capture the participants’ level of
involvement in environmental issues since the acquisition of environmental knowledge requires higher
levels of involvement in the topic.
We predicted a three-way interaction of Cognitive Load, Eco-Logo Size and Involvement.
Specifically, we expected participants with available cognitive resources (i.e., Low Cognitive Load) and
high motivation (i.e., High Involvement in Environmental Issues) to engage in more effortful scrutiny of
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the judgment-relevant information than those with constrained cognitive resources (i.e., High Cognitive
Load) and/or those less motivated to scrutinize the product (i.e., Low Involvement in Environmental
Issues). When the ecologo size was large, we expected this higher level of scrutiny to result in lower
perceptions of product quality (H3a). The logic being that systematic processing of a very prominent
ecologo will lead to a conclusion that the company has exerted an inappropriate level of effort to
deliberately communicate their environmental commitment, thus increasing consumer skepticism of the
claim. The result is thus a discounting effect of ecologo size on perceptions of product quality. In contrast,
when the ecologo was smaller in size, we expected the reverse. Specifically, we expected higher levels of
scrutiny (i.e., highly involved consumers with cognitive resources available) to increase perceptions of
product quality (H3b). The logic here is that the additional effort taken to scrutinize the product allows
these consumers the opportunity to connect the product to their personally held values.
Notably, we expect these effects to be mitigated when the cognitive resources of the High
Involvement consumer are constrained because they are no longer able to scrutinize the cues. In High
Cognitive Load conditions, we thus expect High Involvement participants viewing a disproportionately
prominent ecologo to discount product quality less than when they are cognitively constrained. Similarly,
we also expected the exacerbating effect of standard-sized ecologos on the perceptions of product quality
of High Involvement consumers to be reduced.
When consumers have low environmental involvement, we expect different effects. Specifically,
since these consumers are unlikely motivated to systematically process the information, we expect the
more prominent ecologo to exacerbate perceptions of product quality (relative to the standard-sized logo).
The logic here is based on the HSM, which would suggest that those low in motivation to process the ad
(i.e., consumers with low environmental involvement) are more likely to use symbol prominence as a
heuristic for quality.
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Results and Discussion
As outlined in Hypotheses 3 and 4, we predicted a three-way interaction of the experimental
factors on perceived product quality. To test this, we conducted a regression analysis that included main
effects for each independent variable, the three two-way product terms, and the three-way interaction.
After running this analysis, the three-way interaction coefficient was statistically significant (β = 4.03, p <
.01). To facilitate interpretation of the three-way interaction effect on quality inferences, we plotted the
regression slopes in Figure 1 based on the unstandardized regression coefficient estimates. We further
used the t-test method (Dawson and Richter 2006) to test the slope differences under high and low levels
of cognitive load. Reinforcing the robustness of this finding, we also find a significant three-way
interaction on purchase intentions (β = 4.49, p < .001). Further analysis showed significant slope
differences in the same pattern as perceived quality.
Figure 1 – Three-way interaction effects of cognitive load, ecologo size, and involvement in
environmental issues (unstandardized) based on a linear regression, also testing for differences between
slopes.
Panel A
Low Cognitive Load
7
Perceptions of Quality
6
5
4
Large Ecologo
Small Ecologo
3
2
1
Low
High
Involvement in Environmental Issues
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Panel B
High Cognitive Load
7
Perceptions of Quality
6
5
4
Large Ecologo
Small Ecologo
3
2
1
Low
High
Involvement in Environmental Issues
As Figure 1 - Panel A shows, when participants have a low cognitive load (i.e., 2 digits), their
involvement in environmental issues has a positive effect on perceptions of product quality – however,
this is only true when the company uses a standard-sized ecologo on their product (H3b). This effect
reverses (i.e., environmental involvement slope becomes negative) when the company uses a large
ecologo on their product (H3a). This slope difference is statistically significant (t = -2.641, p < .05).
When consumers have low environmental involvement, however, it appears that the more prominent the
ecologo is on the product advertisement, the more likely they will perceive the product as high quality.
This result is consistent with our predictions and also suggests that the ‘greenwashing discount’ found in
our previous studies may be primarily driven by those who are highly involved in environmental issues.
As such, we can infer that as one increases their involvement in environmental issues, blatant corporate
attempts to convey that a product is environmentally-responsible through logo prominence is met with
more skepticism regarding the quality of their product. However, when the environmentally-friendly cue
is more subtle and less prominent, those who understand environmental consumption believe that the
product is of higher quality than those with low involvement.
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When consumers are burdened with a high cognitive load (i.e., 10 digits), however, it alters the
nature of how consumers form their quality inferences. A significant slope difference test reveals that,
consistent with our predictions, High Involvement participants exposed to disproportionately prominent
ecologos discount product quality less when they are cognitively constrained (vs. not constrained) (t =
2.62, p < .05) (H4a). The results also suggest that the exacerbating effects of standard-sized ecologos on
High Involvement participants’ perceptions of product quality are similarly reduced. Specifically, a
significant slope difference test revealed a significant difference in slopes (t = -2.27, p < .05). These
results are consistent the predictions laid out in hypothesis 4b.
Additional analysis sheds more insight on how the consumers’ motivation and ability to
systematically process the product information influences perceptions of product quality. Specifically, as
shown in Figure 1 - Panel B, we find that when high involvement participants are burdened with a
cognitive load, they evaluate more prominent displays of ecologos as indicative of higher quality (i.e.,
positive slope). This slope difference between large and small ecologos is also statistically significant
under high cognitive load (t = 2.199, p < .05). Standard-sized ecologos no longer yield the same positive
quality impact when high involvement consumers have no cognitive constraints. This suggests that
consumers with high involvement in environmental issues have the means to account for blatant corporate
attempts to appear ‘green’, but lacking sufficient cognitive resources, are no longer able to adequately
incorporate that information into their judgment formation process.
We also conducted a moderated mediation analysis on this data using the PROCESS macro
model 11 (Hayes 2012) to examine the three-way interaction. In order to test the conditional indirect
effects, we analyzed the effect of Cognitive Load (X) on purchase intentions (Y) through perceptions of
product quality (M), moderated by Ecologo Size (W), which was further moderated by Environmental
Involvement (Z). Ninety-five percent bias-corrected and accelerated confidence intervals were calculated
for the indirect effect, based on 1,000 bootstrap resamples. When the participant possessed high
involvement and the product displayed a large ecologo, the confidence intervals surrounding the indirect
effect of perceived quality did not span zero, consistent with an interpretation of a statistically significant
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indirect effect (point estimate: .37; CI95%: .05 to .81). This means that there is a conditional indirect effect
on purchase intentions, such that when a cognitive load is added to high-involvement consumers viewing
a product with a large-ecologo, it leads to significantly higher purchase intentions than when they have a
smaller cognitive load.
General Discussion
Given the increasing prevalence of products that are marketed as environmentally-friendly, it is
important to understand how the (il)legitimacy of environmental claims influences consumers’ product
perceptions. The current work offers compelling evidence of a “greenwashing discount”. Experiments 1
and 2 demonstrate the deleterious effects of perceived greenwashing on consumers’ perceptions of
product quality, and subsequently on purchase intentions. More specifically, it demonstrates that the
unsubstantiated use of the color green, in that it is perceived as greenwashing, negatively impacts
consumers product quality perceptions. Experiment 3 suggests that such discounting effects depend on the
motivation and ability of the consumer to systematically process seemingly-green cues. More generally,
taking the results together, this work offers a framework for understanding how greenwashing perceptions
influence purchase intentions via their influence on product quality perceptions.
Implications and Future Research
As noted earlier, a critical challenge for sustainable consumption practices is the gap between
environmental attitudes and behaviours. Although this work focuses on quality perceptions and purchase
intentions, it does suggest that greenwashing perceptions may play a critical role in determining
consumers’ behavioral responses to environmental products. Further, whereas previous work clearly
highlights that greenwashing is generally bad, this works takes steps to address how such perceptions
ultimately influence product evaluations - it shows that one important way in which it impacts consumers
is its negative effect on product quality perceptions.
Our research also highlights the unintended consequences of the color green. In our first two
studies, we focus on a particular instance of greenwashing – the use of the color green. This work
demonstrates that simply using the color green, regardless of the reason, negatively impacts product
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GREEN
quality perceptions unless the color is legitimized by additional environmental information. These results
have some interesting implications for companies in that it suggests that the color green has become so
intertwined with environmental associations that ultimately it is viewed by consumers as a form of
greenwashing. Companies should thus think carefully about how they use even subtle environmental
imagery in products because, even if they are not attempting to communicate environmental information,
or rather even trying to convey other product information (e.g., product use, product flavor), consumers
perceive such imagery as greenwashing attempts.
The finding that using the color green may negatively impact product perceptions via
greenwashing perceptions also raises an important question about what other simple cues may trigger
greenwashing perceptions. For instance, whereas we focus on an appearance-related cue, there are other
types of sensory cues (e.g., the way the product feels or smells), product-related cues (e.g., shape of the
product) and environmental cues (i.e., store where the product is displayed, other products on the shelf)
that seem likely to similarly influence consumers’ greenwashing perceptions. With regards to the latter,
for example, perhaps consumers are more likely to infer greenwashing when they see an environmental
claim on a product in a store that is typically known for low prices (e.g., Walmart) rather than an identical
product in a store that is recognized for its commitment to sustainability (e.g., Rona). Going forward, in
order for firms to develop environmental products that will be deemed legitimate by consumers, it is
critical to investigate these questions. Further, this work highlights that, not only do we need to
understand what cues signal greenwashing, but also what strategies can be used to overcome such
perceptions.
Our research finds that one effective strategy that companies can use to mitigate the negative
effect of greenwashing cues on product quality perceptions and, subsequently purchase intentions, is to
add an ecologo. Although we used a certified ecologo in our study, we did not investigate whether
participants understood that Ecologo was a legitimate certification program nor whether consumers
understand the requirements that an organization must satisfy in order to be certified. Future research is
needed to examine whether the addition of any third-party certification (or any ecologo for that matter)
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mitigates the greenwashing discount or whether consumers are able to recognize legitimate certifications.
This is an important question given that a recent report by TerraChoice (2010) notes the use of
illegitimate ecologos as an increasingly prevalent greenwashing strategy.
Educating and involving consumers in environmental issues is critical to them being able to
recognize legitimate claims. A potentially perilous result of not educating and involving consumers is that
they will not be equipped to acknowledge and reward those companies who pursue legitimate
certification. As such legitimate environmental organizations will incur the greater administrative and
financial costs associated with pursuing genuine environmental certification, while other organizations
reap similar benefits by creating their own logo (e.g., Proctor and Gamble’s Future Friendly product
logo). Additional research into consumer perceptions of the credibility of certification programs is
warranted as environmental advocates and regulatory bodies continue to struggle to equip consumers with
tools to protect themselves from greenwashing efforts. An investigation is merited into the cues
consumers use to infer credibility based on the logo (e.g., colors, graphics, text) to signal relevance and
truthfulness of a certification program, as well as the threshold required to differentiate between them.
Central to the previous comments is the importance of educating and involving consumers in
environmental issues. Our results that, whereas those more involved in and knowledgeable about
environmental issues were found to scrutinize environmental message, less involved consumers failed to
discount based on greenwashing. More generally, they highlight the importance of increasing consumers’
motivation to scrutinize green claims. Fortunately, more ways are emerging by which consumers can
educate themselves about green product claims and become equipped to be skeptical. Certification
organizations offer credible signals for green claims and are becoming widespread across many
industries, including LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) for buildings and homes,
ISO 14000 for businesses operations, and Environmental Choice to identify products and services which
are less harmful to the environment. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) has published ‘Guides for the
Use of Environmental Marketing Claims’, which are currently undergoing review. The general principles
they advocate anchors on qualifications and disclosures, distinction between benefits of product, package,
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and service (which can help mitigate broad green claims based on minor, incidental components),
overstatements of environmental attributes (i.e., moving from 2% to 3% recycled material and labeling
50% more recycled material than before), and comparative claims (which require brands to substantiate
comparison condition of claims).
More challenging however, are the implications associated with the finding that even consumers
involved in and knowledgeable about the environment fail to discount when they are cognitively
constrained. This is potentially extremely problematic because it seems likely that oftentimes, when in a
retail setting, consumers are likely to be cognitively constrained (e.g., stressed, thinking about other
things, multitasking). While it is difficult to reduce consumers’ cognitive constraints in a retail setting,
educating consumers further should also help to reduce the harmful effect of cognitive constrains on
consumers’ ability to discount based on greenwashing tactics. The logic here is that, at a certain level of
education, consumers should develop heuristic shortcuts for identifying greenwashing. At this point,
consumers should be equipped to discount product quality based on greenwashing regardless of
processing mode.
Another avenue for future research is to examine the “greenwashing discount” phenomenon in
hedonic and luxury product domains. Each of the products we tested in our experiments (i.e. dish soap,
laundry detergent, and batteries) belonged to utilitarian product categories and mitigated challenges
associated with hedonic product categories. Utilitarian goods are primarily instrumental and functional,
while hedonic products provide more experiential consumption, fun, pleasure and excitement (i.e.,
designer clothes, sports cars, luxury watches) (Dhar and Wertenbroch 2000). We believe that consumer
choice based on this categorization may change the nature of the judgment formation, as the nature of
what quality is varies based on personal preferences on top of the notion that hedonic products based on
its green appearance might be enjoyed more based on fashion, style and other experiential elements of
being immersed in nature. In addition, because the products used in our studies are generally not
consumed or used in public, we effectively mitigated potential impression management concerns of
‘looking green.’ However, consumer psychologists have recently noted that people often ‘go green to be
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seen’, serving as a costly signal associated with status (Griskevicius et al. 2010). Ultimately,
incorporating product status and prestige into the impression formation task will change the way
consumers perceive quality and value, which can potentially interact with the greenwashing discounting
mechanism. This area of research suggests that another means to get consumers to promote proenvironmental behavior is to foster conditions of status competition. Finally, whereas we focus on the
implications of greenwashing perceptions at the product-level (i.e., perceptions of product quality),
further research is needed to investigate whether such perceptions may also impact consumers’ brandlevel, firm-level and institutional level evaluations.
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Appendix A – Experiment 1 Primes
Environmental Prime
Terra Choice reports a growing availability of environmentally-friendly products
A recent report by Terra Choice, a leading environmental research company, finds that
sustainable products are more prevalent than ever before. Specifically, their research shows that, between
2010 and 2011, there was a 108% increase in the number of difference environmentally-responsible
products available to consumers and a 73% increase in the physical number of these environmentallyfriendly products on the shelves.
That is great news for consumers – it means that they are increasingly able to buy
environmentally-friendly products and, in doing so, tell producers and suppliers that they want products
that are not harmful to the environment.
Neutral Prime
Soweto Gospel Choir Coming to the Grand
Kingston audiences await the arrival of the Soweto Gospel Choir coming to the Grand Theatre on
Thursday, March 23, at 7:30 p.m. With brightly colored authentic African attire, and 52 strong voices,
audiences can expect an evening like no other. Soweto Gospel Choir has brought recognition, pride and
honour to South Africa. In 2007, they did South Africa proud by winning the 2007 Grammy Award for
their CD “Blessed” in the “Best Traditional World Music” category, and in 2008, they received a 2 nd
Grammy for their CD “African Spirit.”
For tickets, you can either call or visit The Grand Theatre Box Office. It is open Monday through
Saturday, noon – 6 pm and can be reached by calling 613-530-2050.
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Appendix B – Product Stimuli from Experiments 1 and 2
Experiment 1 Product Stimuli
Green Dawn
Orange Dawn
Experiment 2 Product Stimuli
Blue Packaging Color
Ecologo Absent
Ecologo Present
Green Packaging Color
Ecologo Absent Ecologo Present
Running Head A CONSUMER-BASED EXAMINATION OF SUSTAINABLE CONSUMPTION
USING A SOCIAL NORMATIVE PERSPECTIVE
A Consumer-based Examination of Sustainable Consumption using a Social Normative Perspective
Peter Voyer, University of Windsor, Canada
Abstract
In many economically developed nations environmental protectionism has become socially
normative. Notwithstanding, some consumers actively reject socially-expected sustainable consumption
behaviours. This article seeks to understand why this occurs using the individual consumer as the unit of
analysis. A conceptual model that includes psychological and behavioural constructs is developed and
tested. Findings suggest that when some consumers perceive a particular sustainable consumption
behaviour as socially normative, they will intentionally act to breach that norm. Interestingly, these same
consumers will still engage in other sustainable consumption behaviours that are not viewed as normative.
Generally, results show that at the individual level, consumers’ personalities are instrumental in
determining proclivity to practise sustainable consumption when construed as normative.
Keywords: Consumer behaviour, Personality, Sustainable consumption, Social influence, Norms
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Mary and Jill are both successful lawyers, but are polar opposites when it comes to green living.
Mary is highly attuned to social expectations relating to sustainable consumption, and her friends say that
she is adamant about preserving the environment – she practices what she preaches. Despite constant
advertising bombardment, she resists social pressure to consume progressively greater quantities of
complex products, choosing instead to: recycle, reduce dependency on marketplace offerings, and lead a
more natural lifestyle. In contrast, Jill takes pleasure in her ever-expanding inventory of products as she
seeks newer things to make life better – or so she thinks. In deliberate opposition to socially-expected
behaviours such as recycling, she is fully engulfed in decadent, non-sustainable consumption: she loves
her new gas-guzzling car, takes pleasure in her large house and growing collection of goods. She
couldn’t care less about recycling or other environmental-protection efforts, as she makes a concerted
effort to avoid such socially-expected behaviours – “I’ll show them” she thinks as she throws recyclable
material into the garbage. Why is there such an apparent disparity between Mary and Jill?
Motivated by the critical need to more thoroughly understand consumer behaviour as it relates to
environmental sustainability (Thøgersen & Schrader, 2012), in this article, I address the research
question: why some consumers (and not others) purposefully avoid sustainable consumption behaviours,
even in the face of social pressures to comply? In pursuing this question, I consider consumer
personality, coupled with a social normative approach.
Highly influenced by related social norms, environmental sustainability is an important global
issue. The future well-being of humankind depends on the manner in which resources are presently being
consumed. It has been suggested that the world will witness an expanding middle class with an estimated
150 million people entering this class yearly until 2030; ultimately representing about 60% of the world’s
population. 1 Simultaneously, during this period, demand for energy is anticipated to rise by 40%, as will
1
World Economic Forum, Issues, http://www.weforum.org/issues/sustainable-consumption, accessed on 20
September 2013.
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water demand that is expected to surpass supply also by 40%.2 “We are living as if we have an extra
planet at our disposal. We are using 50% more resources than the Earth can provide, and unless we
change course that number will grow very fast – by 2030, even two planets will not be enough” (WWF,
2012, p. 1). Therefore, the “business as usual” paradigm cannot continue.
These sobering statistics, illustrate the potential for impending global disaster unless measures are
taken to curb people’s insatiable desire to consume without concern for long-term repercussions.
Recognizing the gravity of the situation, the World Economic Forum posed the question, “How can
companies engage consumers to trigger simple behavioural shifts that enable more sustainable lifestyles,
grow demand for more sustainable products and create business value?” 3 The answer to the root of this
question lies in understanding the interplay between consumers’ psychological makeup and normative
influences, and how this affects sustainable consumption behaviour.
Theoretical understanding of sustainability (and its importance) is well-known, however, there
exists a gap between this knowledge, and action directed at implementable solutions (Thøgersen, 2005;
Thøgersen & Schrader, 2012). In practice, I argue that the consumer should be at the core of efforts to
enhance sustainable consumption. Without fully understanding consumer behaviour within a context of
social influence, political and social efforts designed to curb ever-increasing consumption are doomed to
failure. Though well-intentioned, major global efforts designed to enhance sustainable consumption such
as: the UN Brundtland Commission’s 1987 Report4 – a seminal work that articulated the importance of
protecting resources for future generations and acted to stimulate initial interest in sustainability; the UN
Millennium Summit in 2000; the UN World Summit in 2005; and many others, have generally yielded
recommendations characterized by implementability difficulties, resulting in no real tangible outcomes
that have re-oriented the current global path of non-sustainability. Thus, in the face of these broad, high-
2
Ibid.
Ibid.
4
Formally known as the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), the UN-established
Brundtland Commission's mission was to unite countries to collectively pursue sustainable development.
3
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level, macro-oriented efforts that have lacked operationalization, here, I move the focus from the esoteric
and conceptual, to the practical and operational.
To stem the disastrous trend of resource-depletion, attention must be oriented to understanding the
interplay between social normative influences and consumers’ personalities. The extant consumeroriented literature on sustainable consumption gives insufficient attention to the important issue of social
influence. This is emphasized by Axsen and Kurani (2012, p.312) who state, “social influence is often
poorly theorized or simply absent from behavioural models and research.” Given this conspicuous
absence, it is here that I make a contribution.
This research is positioned within the limited consumer behaviour social influence literature on
sustainable consumption. A multi-disciplinary perspective is adopted within an overall theoretical
context of social influence. The present research is informed by literature from the fields of consumer
behaviour, social psychology, sociology, as well as policy works from the UN, governments, and NGOs.
In the following paragraphs I overview salient literature and develop a conceptual model that seeks
to address the aforementioned research question. After testing the model, findings are presented,
followed by a general discussion that includes implications (theoretical and practical). Lastly, limitations
and directions for future research are outlined.
Theoretical Underpinnings
Defining Sustainable Consumption
What we know about sustainability has originated from two major sources: policy makers
(governments and NGOs); and academics. Policy makers have devoted substantial effort to advancing
the environmental sustainability movement. These efforts have generated wide-ranging policy
formulations. However, in general, these policies have lacked operationalization; implementability has
been problematic. Not surprisingly, in practice, many consumers have been reluctant to accept these
efforts and modify their consumption behaviour (OECD, 2008). In contrast, Schrader and Thøgersen
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(2011) suggest that much academic research (on sustainable consumption) has centred on
implementability. They have identified an on-going debate surrounding the relative importance of aspects
that lead to a behavioural shift towards sustainability; one side argues the importance of context
(availability and viability of consumption options), while the other side advances the salience of
psychological factors (individual values, attitudes and motives). A pervasive theme that will run
throughout this article is the recognition of the divergence between knowledge and real action to pursue
sustainable consumption, and that importantly, we must strive to understand the reasons for this gap
(Thøgersen & Schrader, 2012). More empirical research is needed to understand why some consumers
(and not others) engage in sustainable consumption behaviour. Here, as will be described later, I address
aspects of both sides of the aforementioned debate by considering social context (normative influence),
and psychological factors (psychological constructs).
The notion of sustainability captures the importance and essence of adopting a long-term
perspective of natural resource management coupled with environmental protectionism. At its core is the
notion that, via careful management, humankind must avoid depletion of limited resources, making them
available for future generations (Thøgersen, 2005). At its broadest level, efforts to advance global
sustainability have been approached along two major sides of an equation: sustainable consumption (how
products are demanded, used and consumed); and sustainable production (how products are produced to
fulfil consumption demands). Conceptualizations of sustainable consumption – the demand side of the
equation – have evolved over time with governments and other organisations driving much world
thinking in this area.
Policy generation and various international cooperative initiatives associated with sustainability
have been made through numerous high-level, international summits. Initial world attention was focused
on sustainable development in 1987 when the United Nations released the Brundtland Report. This
included the recognized definition, “sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” Importantly,
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establishing the groundwork for subsequent formal attention, the Report emphasized the connections
between economic development (profit), environmental degradation (planet), and population pressure
(people). Subsequently, one of the most influential initial attempts to define sustainable consumption was
proposed by the 1994 Oslo Symposium on Sustainable Consumption where it was defined as, “the use of
services and related products which respond to basic needs and bring a better quality of life while
minimizing the use of natural resources and toxic materials as well as emissions of waste and pollutants
over the life cycle of the service or product so as not to jeopardize the needs of future generations.” 5
Thus, the notion of quality of life was recognized as a worthy consideration. Subsequently, as numerous
international organizations (governments, NGOs, UN, OECD, EU, etc.) became involved with
sustainability, the concept evolved over time as each entity presented their own flavour and approach.
See Fuchs and Lorek (2005) for a comprehensive overview of development and governance of sustainable
consumption. Currently, in addition to quality of life, most definitions tend to encapsulate notions
associated with prudent use of resources, decreasing pollution, curtailing waste, and greater reliance on
renewable resources.
Sustainable consumption is ultimately about behaviours that consumers should engage in now, in
order to safeguard the future. Common to most approaches, and reflective of current thinking, has been
the “long-term” theme that has tended to emphasize the need for consumers to behave in ways that can
enhance the future well-being of humankind by minimizing the impact on the earth’s resources and
environment. A pragmatic definition of sustainable consumption that is oriented to consumer behaviour
comes from the Government of Canada6 and states, “the use of goods and services required to meet basic
needs and improve quality of life without placing at risk the needs of future generations. This includes the
selection, purchase, use, maintenance, repair and disposal of any product or service.” This behaviourallyfocused approach will be adopted in this research, and can be operationalized to reflect important
5
Norwegian Ministry of the Environment (1994) Oslo Roundtable on Sustainable Production and Consumption.
Government of Canada Website, Office of Consumer Affairs, https://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/ocabc.nsf/eng/ca02330.html; accessed on 18 October 2013.
6
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behavioural outcomes such as: recycling of resources, self-sufficiency, and closeness to nature. Each of
these will be discussed and employed later.
Consumption, Sustainable Consumption, and Social Influence
From a consumer behaviour perspective, at the heart of consumption is the notion that it is a
process. Starting with purchase and usage, it carries through to ultimate product disposal. Consumption
is embedded in the social environment, and a particular behaviour can evaluated against social
expectations for how people ought to behave. It includes all facets of the consumer’s interaction with a
product, which yields experience, and has resultant cognitive, affective, and behavioural outcomes. The
act of consuming is varied, effortful, and is often determined by the object’s characteristics (Holt, 1995).
A particular consumption object is usually consumed in a multitude of ways by different consumers
(Belk, Ger, & Askegaard, 1996).
The consumer behaviour literature has tended to examine sustainability in terms of how various
factors influence sustainable behaviours such as: ethnicity and scepticism (Luchs, Naylor, Irwin, &
Raghunathan, 2010); congruency of political ideology and persuasive appeals (Kidwell, Farmer, &
Hardesty, 2013); product distortion and recycling (Trudel & Argo, 2013); and related others. However,
as mentioned, little empirical research attention has been devoted to social influence associated with
sustainable consumption, despite its importance (Axsen & Kurani, 2012). Social influence is a
formidable determinant of behaviour, and yet often it is unrecognized (Liu, Smeesters, & Vohs, 2012).
Broadly, during their purchase decision-making and consumption processes, consumers are influenced by
a number of important factors. These influences can be generally grouped under the rubrics of: marketing
mix (product, price, place, promotion), situational (time and place of purchase), psychological (attitudes,
motivation, learning, etc.), and sociocultural (reference groups, society, family, etc., under this rubric lies
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social influence). Sustainable consumption is especially subject to social and cultural standards, and it
must be considered relative to the prevailing situational context.
Central to the understanding of social influence is the distinction between normative influence and
informational influence. The seminal work of Deutsch and Gerard (1955) has provided an enduring
explanation of each concept where normative influence relates to the “influence to conform with the
positive expectations of another” (p. 629), while informational influence is the “influence to accept
information obtained from another as evidence about reality” (p. 629). Thus, reference groups influence
others via normative and informational processes. Deutsch and Gerard (1955) suggest that one reason for
this stems from people’s desire to gain social approval and liking and to avoid negative outcomes such as
social rejection or embarrassment. Another reason is because they rely on others’ actions and attitudes as
a valid source of information about the nature of reality (Goldstein, Cialdini, & Griskevicius, 2008;
Cialdini, 2001). Thus, the notion of expectations (norms) of others is an important consideration. Norms
are the basis of social functioning.
Norms are rules that stipulate how members of a group are expected to behave under given
circumstances. They are ideas in the minds of group members that specify what the members or others
ought to do under specific conditions. As Birenbaum and Sagarin (1976, p.11) suggest, “norms may be
thought of as legitimate, socially shared guidelines to the accepted and expected patterns of conduct.” In
reality, normative standards that restrict the range of permissible conduct are essential for social life
(Blau, 1964). They foster coordination among members in pursuit of (group) goals by providing a
cognitive frame of reference through which members interpret and judge their environment. In novel or
ambiguous situations, they serve as pointers on how to behave. Norms are directed at certain actions
(behaviours), called focal actions (Coleman, 1990), such as recycling behaviour. Thus, norms can play a
proscriptive role by discouraging a focal action, while others are prescriptive and serve to expand and
encourage a focal action. Normative influence might be the most fundamental source of uniformity
within groups (Michener & DeLamater, 1999) and has inextricable links to legal frameworks. Therefore,
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norms serve a highly influential role in facilitating social order, and much social behaviour is normdriven. Social norms are especially important. Here, society is defined as, “any fairly large group of
people who (1) share a common culture, (2) think of themselves as having inherited a common set of
historical traditions, (3) interact with other group members frequently, and (4) see themselves as being
associated with a particular geographic area” (Teevan & Hewitt, 1995, p. 26).
Conceptual Model and Research Hypotheses
The conceptual model, depicted in Figure 1, seeks to explain why particular consumers
purposefully avoid sustainable consumption while others do engage in it. The model examines how
psychological antecedents can result in consequent sustainable consumption behaviours. Central to the
model is the vital role played by the personality trait, consumer propensity to deviate (CPD), which
captures consumers’ likelihood to deliberately breach social norms, and varies across all individuals to
greater or lesser extents. The psychological concept, reactance – the notion that consumers will be
motivated to regain what they perceive as being threatened, is modelled as an antecedent of CPD. As a
consequent effect of CPD, sustainable consumption behaviour is captured by measuring representative
behaviours: recycling of resources (metals, glass), self-sufficiency in services (reducing reliance on nonsustainable consumption), and closeness to nature (living productively with nature as with gardening).
These are important aspects of sustainable consumption and will be described herein.
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Figure 1. The proposed model
Psychological Antecedents

Behavioural Outcomes
Sustainable Consumption
Recycle
H2
(-)
Reactance
H1
(+)
CPD
H3
(+)
SelfSufficiency
H4
(+)
Closeness
Consumer Personality: Consumer Propensity to Deviate (CPD)
Consideration of personality in sustainable consumption research has been somewhat limited with
some notable exceptions. Luchs and Mooradian (2012) found strong evidence to support the role of
personality, specifically agreeableness, modelled as a mediating construct between gender and sustainable
consumption behaviour. Further, this work supported related research that showed how various
personality traits can predict behavioural outcomes (Hirsh, 2010; Hirsh & Dolderman, 2007). Thus,
various personality traits can be highly influential in predicting sustainable consumption behaviours.
Within the present research, a personality trait is considered as a persistent, identifiable characteristic that
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defines a person (Solomon, White, & Dahl, 2014), or stated formally, “a broad enduring disposition to
behave in certain ways” (Bandura, 1986, p. 5).
As a personality trait, possessed by all consumers, CPD explains why some are more likely to
engage in consumption norm-violating behaviour than others (Voyer, 2007). It is grounded in a seminal
social control theory, Gottfredson and Hirschi’s (1990) general theory of crime. This theory considers the
offender and the actual behaviour as separate concepts, and that deviant acts (as behaviours) are
undertaken when they are perceived as being advantageous or desirable to the person who will commit
them. The theory suggests that criminal offenders (vs. noncriminals) are predisposed to commit crimes
given the same set of criminal opportunities. Importantly, there are stable differences in people’s
propensity to commit crime. Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) explicitly state, “people vary in their
propensity to use force and fraud (criminality)” (p. 4) and that it is the individual “level of self-control, or
criminality, [that] differentiates offenders from nonoffenders” (p. 109). In terms of committal of crime,
the theory “adds a biosocial element to the concept of social control: individual differences are stable over
the life course and so is the propensity to commit crime; it is only opportunity that changes” (Siegel &
McCormick, 1999, p. 290). This suggests that the propensity, defined as, “a natural inclination or
tendency” (Webster’s New World Dictionary, 1964, p. 1167), can be viewed as a personality trait.
As a general trait that varies across all consumers, CPD is analogous to Midgley and Dowling’s
(1978) conceptualization of the innovativeness construct – a general personality construct possessed, to a
greater or lesser degree, by all individuals. These authors do not couch their definition in terms of an
observable behaviour (i.e., time of adoption), and it is distinct from any such possible measures.
Likewise, CPD is not defined in terms of an actual behaviour, but rather an individual’s propensity.
Sociologists argue that engaging in a behaviour requires more than a motive or predisposition;
opportunity must also be present in order for a behavioural outcome to occur (Gibbs, 1995). Although a
propensity cannot be acted upon without an opportunity, it is omnipresent, in varying degrees, across all
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consumers. CPD is defined as, “the inclination or tendency for consumers to wilfully contravene
consumption norms as defined by members of [their society]” (Voyer, 2007, p. 33).
Reactance
People hate to lose freedoms that they already have. Psychological reactance suggests that when
people feel that their freedom of choice is threatened in some way, they seek to reassert what is being
taken away from them (Brehm, 1966). Little research effort has been devoted to reactance within the
consumer behaviour literature, apart from a few informative studies (see Clee & Wicklund, 1980; Kivetz,
2005; Liu et al., 2012). Some consumers place great importance on (perceived) freedom to dispose of
products in a manner of their choosing; these consumers find government-mandated regulations that
mandate recycling highly provocative. For example, a municipality in Canada (City of Gatineau,
Quebec) has recently implemented a system whereby dedicated “garbage police” randomly open and
inspect residents’ garbage bags to insure that no recyclable products or material are designated for
garbage, thus, enforcing a municipal by-law. Those found guilty of this by-law offence face fines. From
a social marketing perspective, such a strong campaign designed to alter lifestyle decisions might trigger
boomerang or adverse effects resulting in a negation of the desired outcomes (Clee & Wicklund, 1980).
When freedoms are threatened or eliminated, consumers will become motivationally aroused to
restore those freedoms. In other words, this motivational state, psychological reactance, impels the
consumer to want to acquire the threatened or eliminated freedom (Brehm, 1989). Some may respond
aggressively, others with self-presentational methods using public image, yet others may try to facilitate a
sense of control and establish an illusion of control (Gilbert, Krull, & Pelham, 1988). An important
personality construct, it can be modelled (and measured) as a personality trait, and is positively related to
other personality variables such as: internal locus of control, self-esteem, and others (Hong & Faedda,
1996). A consumer who is likely to be highly reactionary could also be expected to be more inclined to
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breach normative standards. It is predicted that reactance will be positively related to CPD and the
following is advanced:
H1:
The greater the consumer’s psychological reactance, the greater the CPD.
Sustainable Consumption
The notion of sustainable consumption and its implementation can confuse some consumers. It can
be viewed as being somewhat nebulous and lacking precision, thus, it can mean different things to
different people. In a European Union survey, 48% of respondents insisted that green labels on products
do not help them identify product that are actually environmentally friendly. 7 Further in the US, a mere
28% of consumers were aware that terms such as, “green” and “environmentally friendly” are commonly
used to denote products that minimally impact the environment relative to similar “non-green” products. 8
This reinforces the aforementioned contention that high-level “green” policies lack implementability.
As stated earlier, the Government of Canada’s definition of sustainable consumption has been
employed in this research. This useful approach, which supports that of the OECD, is operationallyoriented and pragmatic. Focussing on behaviours at the level of the individual consumer, sustainable
consumption is understood to include recyclable inputs, efficiency in the consumption of resources in the
home, minimization of waste, and environmentally sound purchasing practices of households (OECD,
2008).
Appealing to the consumer behaviour literature, the concept of voluntary simplicity is closely
related and captures the behavioural essence of sustainable consumption. Voluntary simplicity is
conceptualized as the degree to which an individual selects a lifestyle intended to maximize his/her
control over daily activities, and to minimize his/her consumption and dependency (Leonard-Barton,
7
European Commission Directorate General, Special European Barometer 365, Attitudes of European Citizens
Towards the Environment, 2011.
8
Cone Communications, Consumers still purchasing, but may not be ‘buying’ companies’ environmental claims, 27
March 2012; http://www.conecomm.com/2012-cone-green-gap-trend-tracker, accessed on 13 November 2012.
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1981). Leonard-Barton (1981) operationalized this concept by suggesting several behavioural
manifestations, particularly: recycling of resources; self-sufficiency in services; and closeness to nature.
Recycling of Resources. In most economically developed nations, there are very strong social
expectations calling for recycling (paper, bottles, cans, etc.). This is enhanced by government programs
such as “blue boxes” for recycling paper and metal, and publicly located bins labelled as, “trash” and
“recycling,” seen in public locations. Importantly, this recycling expectation is now normative in
developed nations (OECD, 2008), and is an extremely powerful consumption norm. It is expected that
there will be an inverse relationship between CPD and recycling (of resources). The following is
advanced:
H2:
The greater a consumer’s CPD, the lesser the likelihood of that consumer will engage in
recycling behaviour.
Self-sufficiency in Services. Self-sufficiency proposes that consumers rely more on themselves to
do various tasks such as: work on one’s own vehicle; get instructions in skills in order to enhance selfreliance like carpentry or plumbing; and/or engage in barter, unlike recycling, self-sufficiency is not
normative, especially in developed nations. For busy consumers, time is at a premium and therefore, they
purchase convenience goods, shop at retailers that offer convenience, and seek professional repair
services – these have become norms in developed economies. Time constraints, coupled with
technological complexities, drive consumers away from self-reliance to greater dependence on products
and amenities. Conversely, the more a consumer becomes self-sufficient, the more he/she digresses from
others’ expectations of lessened self-sufficiency (i.e., convenience-oriented consumption). In light of the
foregoing, the following is suggested:
H3:
The greater a consumer’s CPD, the greater the likelihood of that the consumer will
pursue self-sufficiency behaviours.
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Closeness to Nature. Closeness to nature captures the essence of ecological awareness to include
growing one’s own food, vegetarianism, and/or contributing to ecologically-oriented organizations.
Despite greater proclaimed concern and environmental awareness, driven by the desire to enhance
convenience, consumers continue to retreat from nature (e.g., purchasing food items rather than growing
them). The more a consumer becomes closer to nature, the more he/she moves away from others’
(society’s) expectations. Therefore, the construct, closeness to nature, is not normative. The following is
predicted:
H4:
The greater a consumer’s CPD, the greater the likelihood of that the consumer will
pursue behaviours oriented to enhancing his/her closeness to nature.
Construct Validity
From a methodological perspective, when modelling social-psychological and personality
constructs, it is important to enhance the model’s validity, to the greatest extent possible. Further, by
extension, it is equally important to assess and demonstrate construct validity. A useful way of doing this
is to examine relationships between the model’s constructs and other constructs that are conceptually
related, but different. Specifically, this leads to an evaluation of convergent and discriminant validity. To
establish construct validity, correlations with selected other measures can be examined (Brewer, 2000;
Netemeyer, Bearden, & Sharma, 2003; Ping, 2004). Therefore, two validity measures are considered with
particular attention devoted to their relationships to the personality trait measure, CPD.
Attention to Social Comparison Information (ATSCI) assesses the extent to which one is aware of
the reactions of others to one’s own behaviour, and is concerned about, or sensitive to, the makeup of
those reactions. Individuals care what other people think about them and look for clues as to the nature of
others’ reactions toward them (Lennox & Wolfe, 1984). Due to its conceptual similarities, this scale is
included in order to assess distinctiveness from CPD. Both constructs, CPD and ATSCI, suggest that the
consumer engages in comparison: CPD to norms; and ATSCI to others’ reactions to his/her behaviour.
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Accordingly, I expect that the correlation between ATSCI and CPD will either be very low or
nonsignificant.
Social Desirability Bias (SDB) is an important notion in social science research, however, within
the marketing and consumer behaviour literatures, it has not received much attention as compared to other
related disciplines (Fisher, 2000). It is conceptualized as the tendency for respondents to give socially
desirable responses that made them look good (Paulhus, 1991). The present study is based entirely on
self-report. Although a substantial body of research supports the use of self-report measures in
psychosocial research claiming that it does afford accurate evaluations (Akers, Massey, Clarke, and
Lauer, 1983; Clark & Tiff, 1966; Lee, 1993; Ones, Viswesvaran, & Schmidt, 1993), some criticism of
self-report formats has suggested that SDB might occur and thus taint findings (Sacket, Burris, &
Callahan, 1989). Therefore, it is important to test for the potential presence of this bias. This is
particularly important in the present research, which is highly related to social context and subject to
social influence. In this study, numerous efforts were undertaken to mitigate SDB’s undesirable effects
by: careful wording of items using indirect questioning means (Fisher, 1993); ensuring respondent
anonymity by avoiding use of identifying features on the questionnaire; and facilitating social “isolation,”
here, respondents completed the questionnaire online, likely out of view and knowledge of others. Hence,
I expect that the correlation between SDB and CPD will be either low or nonsignificant.
Research Design, Method, and Results
Method and Research Setting
Respondents were recruited from the student body at a small North American college using a Webbased survey approach. After clicking a hot link (URL), respondents could enter a commercial survey
hosting site and complete the questionnaire. As an incentive for participation respondents could enter a
draw to win an MP3 music player. Using the college’s email system, 444 invitations were delivered to
students (undergraduate, graduate, full- and part-time). Subsequently, 159 responses (36%) were
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received; typical of similar studies. The questionnaire included measures for: psychological reactance,
CPD, three behavioural measures for sustainable consumption, two validity measures, and a
demographics section.
Measures
All measures used in the conceptual model were Likert scales, and items for each are listed in the
Appendix. Psychological reactance was measured using a refined version of the Hong Psychological
Reactance Scale (Hong & Faedda, 1996). The 11-item Hong Likert scale was multidimensional, and
comprised of four factors: emotional response toward restricted choice; reactance to compliance; resisting
influence from others; and reactance toward advice and recommendations. CPD was a unidimensional,
seven-item measure (Voyer, 2007). It has been extensively tested and validated, and shown to reflect the
intended construct. Sustainable Consumption was captured using three behavioural measures (recycling,
self-sufficiency, closeness to nature) from the six-factor, 18-item, multidimensional Voluntary Simplicity
scale (Leonard-Barton, 1981). Also considered were two validity measures: the ATSCI measure (Lennox
and Wolfe, 1984) was an 11-item, unidimensional scale; and SDB was tested using a 10-item version of
the Marlowe-Crowne social-desirability scale (Strahan & Gerbasi, 1972). This was a dichotomous scale
(true/false) where five items were keyed positively (T = 1 and F = 0) and five negatively (T = 0 and F =
1). Therefore, scores ranged from 0 to 10 with higher scores representing higher need for approval. This
version has been effectively used in research, most notably by Netemeyer, Burton, and Lichtenstein
(1995) in their vanity scale development research.
Analyses and Evaluation of Hypotheses
In general, a three-stage analytical process was used. Exploratory factor analysis (principal
component analysis and reliability analysis) using IBM SPSS was undertaken to assess the psychometric
properties of all scales. Next, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using IBM SPSS AMOS was
undertaken. Lastly, the structural model was analysed (also using AMOS) to estimate hypothesized
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paths. The traditional χ2 is reported in addition to five supplementary fit indices: NC (Normalized Chisquare, χ2/df), AGFI (Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index), RNI (Relative Non-Centrality Index) 9, RMSEA
(Root Mean Square Error of Approximation), and CFI (Comparative Fit Index).
Initial analyses focused on the CPD scale to confirm its structure and psychometric performance.
Results of a CFA, which was conducted on this measure (alone) demonstrated excellent data fit [χ2 =
30.98, (d.f. = 14, p = .01), NC = 2.21, AGFI = .89 (GFI = .95), RNI = .97, CFI = .97, and RMSEA = .08].
These resultant fit indices surpassed the normally desired minimal rules-of-thumb values10 (see
Netemeyer et al., 2003). Item loadings were acceptable ranging from .68 to .84, as were squared multiple
correlations ranging from .55 to .70, item-to-total correlations ranging from .65 to .79; and inter-item
correlations ranging from .47 to .69. Overall, internal consistency measures were acceptable: coefficient
alpha = .90; composite reliability = .91; and average variance extracted (AVE) = .58 (Fornell & Larker,
1981).
Next, each of the other measures was evaluated individually (via CFA) by examining their
respective item loadings, factor structures and internal consistencies. Subsequently, correlational analysis
with CPD was conducted. Results are presented in Table 1.
9
2
RNI = [(χ
10
2
Null Model
- dfNull Model) – (χ
2
Estimated Model
- dfEstimated Model)] / (χ
Null Model
- dfNull Model)
Rules-of-thumb minimal values: NC<5.00; AGFI>.80; GFI>.90; RNI>.90; CFI>.90; and RMSEA<.10
Running Head A CONSUMER-BASED EXAMINATION OF SUSTAINABLE CONSUMPTION USING A SOCIAL NORMATIVE
PERSPECTIVE
Table 1. Internal consistency and correlations
Internal Consistency
Correlations
Comp.
α
Coef.
α
AVE
CPD
CPD
.91
.90
.58
1.86
(.94)
Reactance
.86
.74
.38
.47
3.74
(.81)
Recycle
.91
.69
.44
-.22
-.07, N
4.32
(.97)
SelfSufficiency
.91
.69
.44
.14*
.003, N
.01, N
2.43
(.93)
Closeness to
Nature
.91
.69
.44
.18
.05, N
.08, N
.17
1.81
(.64)
ATSCI
.90
.85
.45
.01, N
.14*
-.10, N
-.03, N
-.19
3.94
(1.00)
SDB
--
--
--
-.06, N
-.16
.04, N
.08, N
.12, N
-.37
4.04
(1.83)
Age
--
--
--
-.13*
-.19
.27
-.27
.06, N
-.32
.14*
26.82
(9.04)
Incomea
--
--
--
-.04, N
-.15*
.27
-.27
.05, N
-.32
.01, N
.84
React.
Recycle
SelfSufficiency
Closeness to
Nature
ATSCI
SDB
Age
Incomea
2.28b
(1.57)
Notes: Correlations are Pearson Correlations. Except where noted by N (not significant) or * (p < .10), all correlations are significant at the .05, .01, or .001 levels (2-tailed).
Diagonal entries are mean values and standard deviations (in parentheses).
a
Personal Income; b This value indicates annual mean income < $40K
Running Head A CONSUMER-BASED EXAMINATION OF SUSTAINABLE CONSUMPTION
USING A SOCIAL NORMATIVE PERSPECTIVE
The reactance scale of four factors and 11 items was subjected to CFA. The optimal solution
required the deletion of one item since it cross-loaded and was weak. This final and best solution was
desirably nonsignificant: χ2 = 36.71, (d.f. = 29, p = .15) with extremely good data fit [NC = 1.27, AGFI =
.92 (GFI = .96), RNI = .97, CFI = .97, and RMSEA = .04]. The scale’s internal consistency measures
were generally acceptable: Cronbach’s alpha = .74, and composite reliability = .86. But, AVE (= .38) was
lower than the generally accepted .50 minimum value since all 10 items were used to compute the value
as opposed to computing them for each factor. Using the mean value for reactance (of the remaining 10
items) the correlation with CPD was .47 (seen in Table 1). Thus, correlational analyses seemed to support
the expected relationship.
CFA was conducted on the three constructs that capture sustainable consumption. As reported in
the original article by Leonard-Barton (1981), the item, “recycling glass jars/bottles,” reflected two
factors: recycling (λ = .50 reported) and closeness to nature (λ = .34 reported). Since the item’s wording
suggested recycling, it was decided to load it on that factor. The CFA solution (using the three
constructs) was nonsignificant (as desired): χ2 = 30.35, (d.f. = 24, p = .17) with very strong fit indices [NC
= 1.27, AGFI = .93 (GFI = .96), RNI = .98, CFI = .98, and RMSEA = .04]. The correlations between
CPD and the three measures were weak but directionally were as predicted (see Table 1).
Next, the two validity measures were analysed and their relation to CPD was assessed. The
correlation between ATSCI and CPD was nonsignificant as expected (see Table 1). Although the two
constructs are conceptually similar, they are distinct and not empirically related. The results supported
my prediction. Importantly, the correlation between SDB and CPD was not significant and suggested that
CPD did not likely suffer from this bias (see Table 1).
Given that the measures had demonstrated very good psychometric properties, including acceptable
internal reliabilities, analyses were now directed on evaluating the model as a whole. This was the apex
of my analyses.
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Structural Model: Path Analyses
Overall, acceptable data fit was attained: χ2 = 388.76, (d.f. = 291, p < .001) with fit indices [NC =
1.34, AGFI = .82 (GFI = .85), CFI = .93, and RMSEA = .05]. Path loadings were all significant and all
hypotheses were supported as seen in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Results of path analyses
Sustainable
Consumption
Recycle
H2
Reactance
H1
CPD
H3
SelfSufficiency
H4
Closeness
Notes:
1. All paths are significant where H1: p < .001; H2: p < .01; H3: p < .10; and H4: p < .05; (two-tailed).
2. Path loadings are indicated and t-values are in parentheses.
Running Head A CONSUMER-BASED EXAMINATION OF SUSTAINABLE CONSUMPTION
USING A SOCIAL NORMATIVE PERSPECTIVE
General Discussion and Future Research
Contrary to intuitive thought, findings suggest that when some consumers perceive a particular
(sustainable consumption) behaviour as socially normative, they will actively and wilfully act to breach
that behavioural norm and thwart that behaviour. However, the same consumers will adhere to other
(sustainable consumption) behaviours when these behaviours are not viewed as normative. Ultimately,
results suggest that that social normative influence coupled with the aspects of personality, plays a large
role in how some consumers will consume sustainably.
Several key contributions have been made to consumer behaviour theory and practice: our
understanding of the role of personality was enhanced by considering a relevant norm-focussed
personality trait as an antecedent to sustainable consumption; the important function of normative
influence on consumers was also enhanced; by modelling psychological reactance as an antecedent to the
aforementioned personality trait, an enhanced appreciation of its key role was facilitated; and lastly,
business practitioners, marketers and advertisers, can leverage this article’s findings to formulate
communication plans designed to boost sustainable behaviour. This will be further discussed herein.
Implications for Business Practitioners
Business practitioners should appreciate that the sustainability market possesses much untapped
revenue-generating potential. It has been conservatively estimated that the US sustainability market alone
(products that focus on health, environment, social justice, personal development and sustainable living)
is at approximately $290 B and growing. 11 Further, market research has revealed that over 41 million US
consumers, representing 1 in 4 American adults, can be considered in this market, which can be described
as six product sectors: (1) personal health (natural, organic products); (2) eco-tourism (eco-travel, adventure); (3) green building (environmentally-friendly building materials); (4) natural lifestyles (eco
home furnishings and supplies); (5) alternative transportation (biofuel, hybrid vehicles); and (6)
11
LOHAS Website: http://www.lohas.com/about, accessed on 23 September 2013.
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alternative energy (renewable energy).12 Thus, these consumers are the future of highly profitable
business that is geared to sustainable consumption.
Marketers and advertisers who are involved in the design of a communications campaign designed
to enhance sustainable consumption must be highly cognisant of the manner in which desired behavioural
outcomes are presented to consumers. Market segmentation can help along with some principles of social
influence advanced by the current research.
For a “low-CPD” segment, the “if everyone is doing it, it must be right (and you should do it too)”
approach could be employed. This leverages an important principle in social influence – the principle of
social truth (Cialdini, 2001). Also referred to as the social consensus or social validation principle, this
approach suggests that consumers perceive that most people are engaged in a particular behaviour, they
are more likely to pursue it too. Slogans like, “over 1 billion served,” or “thousands of happy customers
can’t be wrong,” attempt to capitalize on this principle. Hotels could enhance the rate of towel re-usage
(to avoid wasteful cleaning after each usage) by simply communicating to guests that virtually all guests
choose to re-use their towels during their stay in order to conserve water (Goldstein et al., 2008).
Therefore, a target behaviour is presented as being socially normative. In this context, it might be more
beneficial to emphasize normative social influence and not informational aspects of social influence.
Conversely, for a “high-CPD” segment, a marketer should avoid presenting the message as being
normative, or risk a backlash from this segment. A communicative effort could present the target
behaviour as a suggestion, possibly creating a perception that it’s unique to that consumer, suggesting that
most consumers don’t want to pursue that behaviour. In other words, marketers should avoid conveying
social acceptance, and do not communicate the social acceptance or consensus associated with the
behaviour. In this context, unlike the aforementioned low-CPD segment, it might be more beneficial to
emphasize informational influence and not normative influence.
12
Ibid.
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By targeting consumers who likely possess high levels of CPD, several strategies may be employed
to enhance sustainable consumption behaviour adoption (if this is desired). For example, marketers could
formulate campaigns designed to shape individuals’ perceptions of sustainable consumption in order to
enhance the perception of “cool” and “uniqueness” and possibly reduce normative influence.
Implications for Policy Makers
From a geo-political perspective, failure to take immediate action with results-focussed solutions
will have calamitous results. The history of humankind is a history of strife and conflict. The
underpinning reason for virtually every military conflict, large and small, has been a fight for resources.
When resources become scarce and threatened, humans will resort to violence to seize what is desired.
A consumer-centric, operational, approach is needed in order to enhance the long-term viability of
any policy designed to enhance sustainability. In the wake of failed global initiatives that have been
based on high-level, conceptual notions, policy makers and business leaders together must re-focus efforts
on the individual consumer. Pragmatism must be the overarching criterion for policy development.
Complex, yet well-meaning, initiatives have done little to restrain exponentially increasing demands on
the earth’s scarce resources. Campaigns of education, advertising, and information dissemination, must
seek to present viable sustainable consumption options to the consumer. The consumer, and his/her
consumption behaviours, must be the centre of policy inception, formulation, development and
implementation. This article facilitates an enhanced understanding of the consumer that can aid in the
aforementioned goal. In practice, policy makers can apply the same recommendations as suggested for
business practitioners.
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Limitations and Future Research
This research has some limitations. In this study rational choice has been assumed to prevail. No
detailed consideration of potential biological, political and economic factors has been made. Further,
important to this research on social influence, has been the theme of normative violation. Any empirical
research involving norms can spur concerns, “unfortunately, the notion of a norm is a study in problems,
even though most sociologists appear indifferent to those problems.” (Gibbs, 1995, p.65). Three of the
major areas of concern in the study of norms are: the sufficient consensus problem (how many members
in a social system are required to subscribe to a statement for it to become a norm); the question of
normative contingencies (what circumstances to people have in mind when judging normative standards);
and the issue of personal evaluations of conduct (what the individual making the statement regards as
good or bad behaviour).
Avenues for future research are diverse. At a macro level, future studies could integrate the notion
of individual propensity to deviate (i.e. the CPD construct) in diffusion models that seek to explain the
spread of sustainable consumption behaviour through a population. Researchers could examine how a
diffusion process traces the spread of sustainable consumption behaviour through society as it initially
starts with individual adoption, builds critical mass through successive adoptions to where the behaviour
once considered as non-normative, and ultimately becomes mainstream.
Economists have focused on viewing the economy and the environment as a single interlinked
system with a unified valuation methodology (Hamilton & Clemens, 1999; Dasgupta, 2007). Future
sustainable consumption research in behavioral economics could seek to examine each stage in a value
chain. Similarly, the corresponding notion may be applied to future marketing research where each
channel in a value-added chain of distribution. Keeping with this theme, marketing research could
examine the role of channel power (an important research area in marketing) and sustainable consumption
efforts.
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But one must question the traditional “rational decision maker” paradigm as espoused in the
literature. How do biological factors impact the aforementioned notions? To what extent are people’s
decision-making capacities “hard-wired?” These are issues that must be closely considered in the
formulation of future conceptual models and proposed theories.
Are there cultural differences associated with SCB and is there a cultural impact on CPD? Crosscultural research would greatly enhance our understanding of these important topics. An analyticallyfocused study could examine assessing measurement invariance of the CPD measure in cross-national
consumer research. Steenkamp and Baumgartner (1998) have suggested comprehensive approaches for
this type of research.
Due to the complexity associated with these avenues, there are certainly potential empirical
difficulties. Avenues (mentioned above) that involve time-series analysis, cross-cultural approaches,
norm-development, diffusion of behaviour etc., are always challenging. Notwithstanding, future research
opportunities in this area are promising.
Summary and Conclusions
Sustainable consumption is a big issue and one that is exceedingly important to humankind.
Evidence strongly suggests that humans cannot continue to consume at current levels without pacing the
planet in peril. Many international, high-level initiatives have addressed the urgency associated with the
need to take action, however, in general, these initiatives have lacked implementabity. Action-focussed
plans must centre on consumer behaviour and recognize varying consumer personalities and perceptions.
By virtue of their personalities, some consumers deliberately breach consumption norms. Therefore,
when viewed as a norm, sustainable consumption behaviour will not be practised by such a consumer.
Importantly, when communicating sustainability plans, marketers and advertisers must appreciate
normative influence, especially on those consumers who will make a concerted effort to breach associated
norms.
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Against the backdrop of an ever-increasing world population, virtually every scientific model
suggests that unless measures are taken immediately to curb current rates and trends of consumption, the
entire human population will enter a stage of turmoil, the likes of which have never been experienced
before. It is known that many of the world’s life-giving resources are on the brink of collapse: edible fish
stocks; drinking water supplies, oxygen-yielding forests, etc., as the planet’s 7 billion people encroach on
these recourses. The situation is dire. Options that do not focus on sustainability have run out.
Intelligent mechanisms to enhance sustainable consumption have to be developed and implemented
immediately. Challenging in practice, these mechanisms must not risk plunging the world into a (greater)
state of economic turmoil.
Humankind must address current and curb trends of consumption. As
humans, we must treat our fragile planet with respect and careful nurturing in order to protect it for future
generations. In practice, sustainable consumption starts with the individual consumer.
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Appendix
SCALES ITEMS USED TO MEASURE CONSTRUCTS IN THE MODEL
Consumer Propensity to Deviate (seven point; 1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
I try to use products that are the opposite of what others believe I should use.
The things I own express my rejection of society.
I seek out products, services, or experiences that make me feel like I am an outsider.
If most people believe that it is right to buy a certain product, I will buy the “opposite.”
I reject society’s values through my consumption.
I try to buy things so that I don’t fit in.
I actively buy products that others do not like.
Psychological Reactance (seven point; 1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
I become frustrated when I am unable to make free and independent decisions.
I become angry when my freedom of choice is restricted.
It irritates me when someone points out things which are obvious to me.
Regulations trigger a sense of resistance in me.
I find contradicting others stimulating.
When something is prohibited, I usually think “that’s exactly what I am going to do.”
I resist the attempts of others to influence me.
It makes me angry when another person is held up as a model for me to follow.
When someone forces me to do something, I feel like doing the opposite.
I consider advice from others to be an intrusion.
Advice and recommendations induce me to do just the opposite.
Recycling of Resources (five-point; 1 = always, 5 = never)
1. Recycle newspapers used at home.
2. Recycle glass jars/bottles used at home.
3. Recycle cans used at home.
Self-sufficiency (five-point; 1 = always, 5 = never)
1. Family members or friends change the oil in the family car.
2. Have gotten instructions in skills to increase self-reliance, for example, in carpentry, car tune-up and
repair, or plumbing.
3. Have exchanged goods or services with others in lieu of payment with money, e.g., repairing
equipment in exchange for other skilled work.
Closeness to Nature (five-point; 1 = always, 5 = never)
1. Intentionally east meatless main meals.
2. Contribute to ecologically oriented organizations.
3. Grow vegetables the family consume during the summer seasons.
Running Head: IT AINT EASY BEING GREEN: UNINTENDED EFFECTS OF THE COLOUR
GREEN
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Running Head: THE INTERPLAY BETWEEN AROUSAL AND SCHEMA CONGRUITY
The Interplay Between Arousal and Schema Congruity
Theodore Noseworthy, University of Guelph, Canada
Fabrizio Di Muro, University of Winnipeg, Canada
Kyle Murray, University of Alberta, Canada
Extended Abstract
Imagine approaching Apple’s newest concept for the iWatch (“an advanced wearable computer in
the form of a bracelet that could double as a watch.”13). Indeed, this watch would be incongruent with
one’s normative expectations for what a wristwatch ought to be. The question is whether you would like
it. Now imagine approaching the iWatch in a store crowded by people, with loud music playing and
balloons flying everywhere. Would that make a difference? At the heart of this thought-experiment is the
concept of arousal. It is often debated whether there is a relationship between arousal and preference, and
if so, whether that relationship follows an inverted-U function, such that an optimal (or moderate) level of
arousal can augment preference, whereas an extreme level of arousal can inhibit preference (Martindale et
al. 1990). This function has been adopted in marketing to explain preference for incongruent products (re:
the schema congruity effect; Meyers-Levy and Tybout 1989). Although the effect has received its fair
share of support, several recent advances call into question its robustness, and whether it truly is the result
of what would seemingly constitute a misattribution of arousal.
13
www.forbes.com/sites/anthonykosner/2013/02/21/the-iwatch-as-snap-bracelet-apple-just-got-the-patent/
Running Head: THE INTERPLAY BETWEEN AROUSAL AND SCHEMA CONGRUITY
CONCEPTUAL BACKGROUND
The literature supporting the misattribution of arousal maintains that because emotion is a
combination of non-specific physiological arousal and a cognitive label (e.g., joy, fear, jealousy, etc.),
people can misattribute increased levels of arousal to different emotional states (Reisenzein 1983;
Schachter and Singer 1962). This has led some to argue that arousal can be attributed to the wrong source,
and thus alter the nature of a given emotional experience (Inzlicht and Al-Khindi 2012; Vosgerau 2012).
The schema congruity effect, which is also known as the Mandler hypothesis or the moderate incongruity
effect, is predicated on a dynamic relationship between tension and arousal (Mandler 1982; Meyers-Levy
and Tybout 1989). It follows the Yerkes–Dodson law (Yerkes and Dodson 1908), which is an inverted-U
relationship between arousal and performance. In short, people tend to like arousing things up to a certain
point, beyond which, arousal levels become too taxing, leading to negative evaluations.
Mandler (1982) argued that an optimal level of arousal could be achieved when an object is just
slightly incongruent (moderate incongruity) and thus the individual can successfully assimilate it into an
existing schema held in memory. However, when incongruity levels rise past a certain threshold (extreme
incongruity), a person’s ability to make sense of the object diminishes exponentially (Meyers-Levy and
Tybout 1989). This often results in negative evaluations, purportedly because the task becomes too
arousing. Mandler posited that different internal processes operate at different levels of incongruity. A
significant amount of research in marketing has examined Mandler’s (1982) seminal hypothesis
(Aggarwal and McGill 2007; Campbell and Goodstein 2001; Jiang, Grant, and Campbell 2012; MeyersLevy and Tybout 1989; Peracchio and Tybout 1996; Stayman, Alden, and Smith 1992). Several advances
have raised the concern that the nonmonotonic (inverted-U) relationship between the degree of
incongruity and preference seems to be highly dependent on focused attention and thus motivation
(Campbell and Goodstein 2001; Jhang, Grant, and Campbell 2012; Noseworthy, Cotte, and Lee 2011;
Noseworthy and Trudel 2011). What is interesting about these observations is that, despite being cited as
boundary conditions, they are actually consistent with Mandler’s (1982) hypothesis about the role of
arousal in schema-based evaluation.
Running Head: THE INTERPLAY BETWEEN AROUSAL AND SCHEMA CONGRUITY
While it is well-established that the valence of consumer’s affective state influences choice (Isen
and Patrick 1983; Isen 1987; Kim, Park, and Schwarz 2010; Mayer and Salovey 1995; Meloy 2000;
Wegener, Petty and Smith 1995), the notion that a consumer’s level of arousal also influences choice has
only recently been established (Di Muro and Murray 2012). This affords a unique means to explore some
inconsistencies in prior work by matching state arousal to the arousal potential of an incongruent product.
Mandler (1982) argued that an optimal level of arousal can enhance preference when an object is
only moderately incongruent with an activated schema, whereas extreme incongruity can reduce
preference because the schematic violation cannot be assimilated without revamping or developing an
entirely new schema (i.e., accommodation). It is believed that in the latter case the act of discovery
becomes too arousing, resulting in negative evaluations of the target (Meyers-Levy and Tybout 1989).
This affords some unique predictions. If the schema congruity effect is truly the result of a misattribution
of arousal, then consumers should appreciate moderate incongruity more when excited than when relaxed
because when arousal is inhibited there will be nothing positive to attribute to the target. Conversely,
consumers should appreciate extreme incongruity more when relaxed than when excited because when
arousal is inhibited there will be no arousal overload and thus there will be nothing negative to attribute to
the target. Study 1 was designed to explore this basic phenomenon and set the foundation for a critical
inquiry into whether the schema congruity effect is truly the result of a misattribution of arousal.
STUDY 1
Participants and Design. Students (N = 144; 46% females; Mage = 19.7) participated in this study in
exchange for course credit and were randomly assigned to one of six conditions in a 2 (arousal: low vs.
high) × 3 (product congruity: congruent vs. moderately incongruent vs. extreme incongruity) betweensubjects factorial design. The target product chosen for this study was soft drinks.
Procedure. Prior to viewing the soft drink ad, arousal was manipulated following procedures that
have proven successful in isolating arousal from valence (Bradley et al 2001). Participants were told they
would be looking at several photographs to help them get energized (relaxed). Several pictures were
Running Head: THE INTERPLAY BETWEEN AROUSAL AND SCHEMA CONGRUITY
drawn from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS; Lang, Bradley, and Cuthbert 1999) and
were selected to be similar in rated hedonic valence (pleasantness) but necessarily varied in rated
physiological arousal. Each picture was presented for six seconds. The entire set randomly cycled while
individuals continuously updated their arousal level using a continuous response technique (Eich and
Metcalfe 1989). The technique required that participants indicated the progressive change in their arousal
level along an adjustable semantic differential scale, with -50 as very relaxed, +50 as very excited, and 0
as neither relaxed nor excited. Participants were told to stop moving the slider bar when they felt no
further changes in their level of excitement (relaxation). Once participants’ arousal level plateaued (i.e.,
once they stopped moving the dial for longer than five second), the software automatically informed them
that they were about to view a new soft drink. The soft drink category was explicitly communicated prior
to viewing the ad in order to activate the appropriate schema (Meyers-Levy and Tybout 1989). The
software then immediately switched to the advertisement. Participants viewed the ad for 30 seconds.
Results and Discussion
Target Evaluations. An analysis of target evaluations (α = .94), as a function of arousal and product
congruity, yielded a significant interaction (F(2, 138) = 5.25, p < .01, η2 = .06). Simple effects revealed
that product evaluations varied by the level of incongruity in the high arousal condition (F(2, 138) =
11.98, p < .001), but not in the low arousal condition (p = .68). As illustrated in table 1, pairwise
comparisons confirmed that, consistent with Mandler’s (1982) inverted-U prediction, when arousal was
high, participants evaluated the moderately incongruent soft drink more favorably (M = 4.54) than the
congruent soft drink (M = 3.81; F(1, 138) = 5.75, p < .05), and evaluated the extremely incongruent soft
drink less favorably (M = 3.05) than the congruent soft drink (M = 3.81; F(1, 138) = 6.23, p < .05). In
support of our core predictions, a planned contrast confirmed that participants evaluated the moderately
incongruent product more favorably when their arousal level was high (M = 4.54) rather than low (M =
3.88; F(1, 138) = 4.76, p < .05), whereas they evaluated the extremely incongruent product more
Running Head: THE INTERPLAY BETWEEN AROUSAL AND SCHEMA CONGRUITY
favorably when their arousal level was low (M = 3.76) rather than high (M = 3.05; F(1, 138) = 5.47, p <
.05). No other contrasts approached significance (ps > .30).
The results of study 1 confirm that preference for product incongruity is highly influenced by the
interplay between the consumer’s aroused state and the arousal potential of the incongruent product.
Specifically, consumers prefer moderate incongruity more when they are aroused than when relaxed,
however, they prefer extreme incongruity more when relaxed than when aroused. In fact, low arousal
washed the schema congruity effect, lowering peak preference for moderate incongruity while
extinguishing the severe aversion to extreme incongruity. Although these results support the prediction
that state arousal interacts with the arousal potential of an incongruent product, the question that remains
is why? Is this the result of inhibiting physiological arousal or is this about altering one’s emotional state?
The goal of study 2 was to isolate the role of physiological arousal and to further test whether the
observed shifts in preference results from distinct emotional states.
STUDY 2
Participants and Design. Participants (N = 148; 44% females; Mage = 24.2) were recruited through
web advertisements and public posters and paid $15 for participating in the study. Thirteen participants
were removed due to excessive movement rendering their skin conductance responses unreliable (original
N = 161). Each individual was randomly assigned to one of four between-subjects conditions in a 2
(incongruity: moderate vs. extreme) × 2 (aroused state: control vs. relaxed) × 3 (attributes: black vs.
carbonated vs. vitamin-fortified) mixed factorial design. Incongruity and aroused state served as the
between-subjects factors, whereas product attributes served as the within-subjects factor. The aroused
state manipulation focused exclusively on relaxation (relative to a control). This not only simplified the
design, but it also allowed us to isolate the novel finding from study 1 that low arousal lowers
evaluations for moderate incongruity and raises evaluations for extreme incongruity.
Procedures and Dependent Measures. Participants were brought into a behavioral lab where a lab
tech administered a pre-screening questionnaire under the guise of screening for physical and
psychological health. In fact, the pre-screening captured several trait variables, which served as a baseline
Running Head: THE INTERPLAY BETWEEN AROUSAL AND SCHEMA CONGRUITY
to assess state changes (see psychometric measures). After completing the pre-screening, participants
were informed that we would be measuring their physiological response to different products using a
galvanic skin response (GSR) system. The study began with a guise that the lab tech must calibrate the
GSR equipment prior to commencing the study. In fact, the calibration task served to manipulate arousal.
Participants in the control condition were instructed to put on a pair of noise cancellation headphones
(JVC HA-NC120) and were asked to sit and wait while the lab tech calibrated the equipment. In the
relaxed condition, Albinoni’s “Adagio in G Minor” played through the headphones and participants were
instructed to think of something relaxing while the lab tech calibrated the equipment. A pretest (n = 44)
using the affect grid confirmed that the relaxation and control conditions induced similar feelings of
pleasantness (MRelaxed = 3.33 vs. MControl = 3.06; p = .27), but different feelings of arousal (MRelaxed = 2.21
vs. MControl = 3.11; t(42) = -2.90, p < .01). The calibration task ran for exactly 3 minutes. The track looped
for the duration in the relaxation condition. Upon completion of the filler task, a 30 s baseline of
physiological arousal was taken. Participants then immediately proceeded to the main task. The main task
began by informing participants that they will be evaluating several different products. Three products
(i.e., the within-subjects attribute condition) then appeared in random order. Each product appeared for 30
s. Participants filled out a brief electronic questionnaire following each appearance. SCRs were sampled
for the duration of the task. The key comparison was the 1 s to 5 s window after each stimulus onset
relative to the 30 s baseline leading into the study.
Results and Discussion
Target Evaluations. A RM ANOVA with product congruity and arousal as the between-subjects
factors, and the three evaluation measures taken after each stimulus onset as the repeated measure (α
range = .92 to .94), yielded a significant three-way interaction (F(1.8, 270) = 3.75, p < .05, η2p = .025; dfs
modified with the Huynh-Feldt adjustment for lack of sphericity). The nature of the interaction was such
that the relationship between product congruity and stimulus onset varied by the arousal manipulation.
Multivariate simple effects confirmed that control participants evaluated the moderately incongruent
Running Head: THE INTERPLAY BETWEEN AROUSAL AND SCHEMA CONGRUITY
stimuli more favorably (M = 5.28) than the extremely incongruent stimuli (M = 3.69; F(1, 144) = 22.55, p
< .001). Pairwise comparisons revealed that these same participants evaluated the extremely incongruent
stimuli less favorably (M = 3.69) than the congruent stimuli (Monset-2 = 4.90, p < .01 and Monset-3 = 4.55, p
= .055), while evaluating the moderately incongruent stimuli more favorably (M = 5.28) than the
congruent stimuli (Monset-2 = 4.40, p < .01 and Monset-3 = 4.56, p < .05). These patterns are consistent with
the schema congruity effect. Consistent with the results of study 1, relaxation once again suppressed the
schema congruity effect. Specifically, no significant contrasts emerged in the relaxed condition (ps > .30).
As predicted, planned contrasts across the arousal manipulation confirmed that relaxation dropped
participants’ evaluations for moderate incongruity (MRelaxed = 4.60 vs. MControl = 5.28); F(1, 144) = 4.22, p
< .05), while increasing participants’ evaluations for extreme incongruity (MRelaxed = 4.27 vs. MControl =
3.69; F(1, 144) = 3.24, p = .062).
The findings from study 2 suggest that the observed effects in study 1 were the result of distinct
emotional states brought on by different levels of incongruity. Hence, altering one’s arousal level
enhanced and suppressed these emotions, which subsequently enhanced and suppressed preference for the
product. In particular, the findings suggest that the schema congruity effect is the result of state-driven
curiosity when faced with moderate incongruity and state-driven anxiety when faced with extreme
incongruity. Up until now, study 1 and 2 held the valence of the arousal manipulation positive. The
question is would the same effects occur if individuals were in a negative state to begin with? This is an
important question because it speaks to an individual’s state influencing what is misattributed to the
target. Study 3 was designed to answer this question.
STUDY 3
Participants and design. Participants (N = 192; 41% females; Mage = 23.6) were paid $10 and were
randomly assigned to one of 8 conditions in a 2 (physiological arousal: high vs. low) × 2 (mood valence:
positive vs. negative) × 2 (product congruity: moderate vs. extreme) between-subjects factorial design.
The manipulation of incongruity was adopted from Meyers-Levy, Louie, and Curren (1994), who
matched company brand names to different product extensions to elicit different levels of incongruity.
Running Head: THE INTERPLAY BETWEEN AROUSAL AND SCHEMA CONGRUITY
Consistent with the schema congruity hypothesis, the authors found that consumers favored moderately
incongruent extensions, while showing an aversion to extremely incongruent extensions.
Procedure. Upon entering the behavioral lab, participants’ resting heart rate was captured using a
pulse plethysmograph. The task began with a lab tech calculating participants’ maximum heart rate.
Following the preliminary calculation, participants were randomly assigned to one of the two
physiological conditions. In the high arousal condition, participants were asked to cycle on an ergometer
and listen to a sound bank while trying to maintain their heart rate at 60% of their maximal heart rate for
10 min; in the low physiological arousal condition, participants sat without cycling on the ergometer and
listened to the sound bank for 10 minutes while monitoring their pulse (Schmidt, Mussel, and Hewig
2013). In line with prior work, mean heart rate was assessed once again in the last five minutes of both
conditions (Schmidt , Mussel and Hewig 2013). The manipulation of attitude valence was accomplished
through the sound banks. Following the use of the IAPS in study 1 to manipulate attitude valence
visually, an auditory manipulation of attitude valence was adopted using the International Affective
Digital Sounds (2nd Edition; IADS-2) collection (Bradley and Lang 2007). Immediately following the
exercise task, participants were given a booklet while still sitting on the ergometer. The booklet included
the advertisement for the Coppertone magazine, which accompanied a pencil and paper questionnaire.
Results and Discussion
Target evaluations. An analysis of target evaluations (α = .96), as a function of arousal, valence,
and product congruity, yielded a significant main effect of valence; people in a negative state evaluated
the target product less favorably (M = 2.08) than did people in a positive state (M = 3.48; F(1, 184) =
105.84, p < .001, η2 = .32). There was also a significant congruity × arousal interaction (F(1, 184) =
12.47, p < .001, η2 = .03). Consistent with studies 1 and 2, simple effects confirmed that participants
evaluated the moderately incongruent product more favorably when their arousal level was high (M =
3.38) rather than low (M = 2.85; F(1, 184) = 7.54, p < .01), whereas they evaluated the extremely
incongruent product more favorably when their arousal level was low (M = 2.66) rather than high (M =
Running Head: THE INTERPLAY BETWEEN AROUSAL AND SCHEMA CONGRUITY
2.23; F(1, 138) = 5.06, p < .05). Importantly, the three-way interaction was not significant (p = .58).
Hence, although the strong valence manipulation dropped preference across the board, it did not alter the
influence of arousal on preference for product incongruity.
The results of study 3 not only replicate the interaction between an individual’s state of arousal and
the arousal potential of an incongruent object, but they also further reinforce the role of distinct emotional
mechanisms. Importantly, attitude valence did not alter the phenomenon. What it did alter was the
strength of the observed emotional states, and importantly, it strengthened them in the direction consistent
with their valence. Thus, the ability for relaxation to lower preference for moderately incongruent
products, while increasing preference for extremely incongruent products, has little to do with attitude
valence, despite that the valence of one’s affective state may attenuate the effect. This suggests that the
observed effects are not the result of arousal regulation (Di Muro and Murray 2012), leaving one to
conclude that the observed effects are truly the result of a physiological response to stimulus complexity.
GENERAL DISCUSSION
The results of this work lend empirical support for whether the schema congruity effect results from
a dynamic relationship between tension and arousal. When faced with an innovative product, consumers
try to overcome the tension that results from an inconsistency between perceptions and expectations, and
if successful, they tend to enjoy the product more. However, when a consumer is in a relaxed state, this
pattern does not occur. There is no uptick in evaluations for a moderately incongruent product, and there
is no severe downtick in evaluations for an extremely incongruent product. This suggests that the schema
congruity effect is highly contingent on an individual’s level of arousal, and thus may indeed result from a
misattribution of arousal. Consumers preferred moderate incongruity when their current level of arousal
was high rather than low. This finding is consistent with the arousal congruity effect (Di Muro and
Murray 2012), whereby a fit is created between an individual’s state of arousal and the arousal derived
from the act of discovery. However, consistent with Mandler’s (1982) prediction that extreme incongruity
Running Head: THE INTERPLAY BETWEEN AROUSAL AND SCHEMA CONGRUITY
can result in negative evaluations due to arousal overload, consumers preferred extreme incongruity when
their current level of arousal was low rather than high.
These findings have strong implications for future research. Given the general lack of evidence
confirming the role of arousal in schema-based evaluation, several scholars have misinterpreted the
schema congruity effect as a phenomenon to explain how consumers respond to any innovation that is
novel. In several instances, this theory was not appropriate, given the stimuli used afforded greater utility.
For instance, it is not schema congruity if someone were to be in a more positive affective state because a
stranger walked up to them and gave them $100, despite the fact a measure of typicality would show this
was indeed a rare and unexpected occurrence. Is the individual responding to the manipulation of
incongruity (i.e., the atypical act) or are they responding to the fact that they are $100 richer? This
distinction, though overly simplified in this example, is often confused. Mandler’s (1982) theory is not
predicated on the utility of the object, but in the utility in the arousal potential of the act of discovery.
Hence, it seems reasonable that the phenomenon is not robust in situations where the arousal brought on
by the act of discovery could be attributed to another source. This would explain several boundary
conditions that have inhibited the schema congruity effect, without inhibiting the individual’s ability to
assimilate the object.
From a substantive perspective, the results lend some unique insights into various
marketing tactics that could assist in introducing incongruent products. Specifically, really new
products that violate consumers’ schematic representations may fair better under relaxed and calm
positioning. This currently is at odds with the contemporary push to make technological
innovations exciting. This practice may only benefit incremental adjustments that can be easily
assimilated, whereby the tactic creates a consistency between the object’s optimal arousal potential and
the arousal derived from the marketing campaign. Future research could go a long way in confirming
whether many of the most recent boundary conditions to the schema congruity effect merely inhibited the
arousal potential of the incongruent stimulus.
Running Head: THE INTERPLAY BETWEEN AROUSAL AND SCHEMA CONGRUITY
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Running Head: HOW TEMPORAL DISTANCE INFLUENCES SINGLE CATEGORY
BELIEFS FOR NEW PRODUCTS
How Temporal Distance Influences Single Category Beliefs for New Products
Sean Hingston, University of Guelph, Canada
Theodore Noseworthy, University of Guelph, Canada
Abstract
Extant research suggests personal goals predict whether a product’s features will constitute
a high-level construal (central to the goal) or a low-level construal (peripheral to the goal). Given
that consumers focus on low-level construals when imagining the near term and high-level
construals when imagining the distant future, goal-dependent construals can lead to temporally
inconsistent preference. The results of two studies offer an alternate account for this phenomenon
by demonstrating that when consumers simulate using a new product in the distant future, their
categorization judgments can alter. Hence, future estimates of preference and prototypicality for
new products align more with how one imagines using the product, irrespective of the personal
goal at the point of purchase. Personal goals only carry weight when simulating the near term.
The results suggest that preference inconsistency over time may have more to do with a shift in
categorization than how certain features are construed.
Keywords: Temporal Distance; Construal Level Theory; Attribute Preference; Usage Routines;
New Products; Product Categorization
Running Head: HOW TEMPORAL DISTANCE INFLUENCES SINGLE CATEGORY
BELIEFS FOR NEW PRODUCTS
1. Introduction
In February 2013, Forbes released a story about Apple publishing a patent application for
“an advanced wearable computer in the form of a bracelet that could double as a watch.”14 This
would constitute one of the most radical concepts of the Apple iWatch to date. In a related
article, another Forbes contributor reflecting on the iWatch asked, “what is the compelling idea
for why I have to have one?”15 Presumably, customer satisfaction is guided by goals
(Vandecasteele & Geuens, 2010; Pieters, Baumgartner, & Allen, 1995). Say a consumer is in the
market to purchase a new wristwatch to ensure they get to school on time and they come across
the iWatch. Given the goal, the consumer should put more weight on features that enhance
timekeeping performance, and less weight on features that relate to playing mp3s or checking
emails. Yet it is not always that simple. Preferences tend not to be stable, and particularly not
over time (Trope & Libermann, 2000). What consumers like today, they may not like tomorrow,
and what consumers believe they will like tomorrow, they may not like as much today
(Kahneman & Miller, 1986). This often leads to disappointment and regret.
A recent study commissioned by Kodak in the UK revealed that British consumers will
regret wasting more than £49,000 in their lifetime; the biggest contributors to post-purchase
regret: clothing (32%), technology products (18%), and shoes (14%).16 An unrelated survey of
1,694 British consumers who had recently purchased the new iPhone, revealed that 22% (one in
five) regretted their purchase.17 Of the reasons given, 43% said they were jealous of rival
smartphones. Indeed, this could bode well for iPhone’s number one rival, Android.
14
www.forbes.com/sites/anthonykosner/2013/02/21/the-iwatch-as-snap-bracelet-apple-just-got-the-patent/ Accessed
on 10/9/2013.
15
www.forbes.com/sites/anthonykosner/2013/02/11/the-iwatch-what-can-apple-do-to-make-us-need-one/ Accessed
on 10/9/2013.
16
newslite.tv/2010/12/09/brits-regret-49000-of-pointles.html Accessed on 10/9/2013.
17
www.computerandvideogames.com/326765/22-of-iphone-buyers-regret-purchase-survey-says/ Accessed on
10/9/2013.
Running Head: HOW TEMPORAL DISTANCE INFLUENCES SINGLE CATEGORY
BELIEFS FOR NEW PRODUCTS
Unfortunately, the return rate for most Android phones is purportedly as high as 40%. 18 If
consumers weigh the utility of a product relative to their goals, then why are they so often let
down? The answer may simply be that it is not preferences that are inconsistent over time in as
much as category judgments are inconsistent.
As is the case with the iWatch, new products tend to incorporate multiple categories
(Moreau, Lehmann, & Markman, 2001). When faced with a product that is not easily
categorized, consumers anchor on a single category and align their beliefs about the product with
that category only (Noseworthy & Goode, 2011; Rajagopal & Burnkrant, 2009). This is referred
to as the “single category belief problem” (Rajagopal & Burnkrant, 2009, p. 232).The extant
literature on single category beliefs identifies various cues that consumers use to categorize
ambiguous new products and when multiple categories may be drawn upon, including perceptual
identity (Gregan-Paxton, Hoeffler, & Zhao, 2005), category label (Moreau et al., 2001),
dominant features (Noseworthy & Goode, 2011), property priming (Rajagopal & Burnkrant,
2009), and even the competitive context (Noseworthy, Wang, & Islam, 2012). Yet this literature
has focused almost exclusively on the present, ignoring how single category beliefs manifest
over time.
Converging evidence suggests that memory is one of the strongest predictors of future
behavior (Kahneman, 2000; Schacter, Addis, & Buckner, 2007). What complicates the issue is
that memories are often inconsistent with actual behavior (Wirtz, Kruger, Scollon & Diener,
2003). When recalling past experiences, people frequently fail to consider the mundane
(Baumgartner, Sujan, & Bettman, 1992; Wirtz et al., 2003). Consequently, they tend to
overestimate their enjoyment (or discomfort) with past events (Bower & Cohen, 1982). Given
18
techcrunch.com/2011/07/26/androids-dirty-secret-shipping-numbers-are-strong-but-returns-are-30-40/ Accessed
on 10/9/2013.
Running Head: HOW TEMPORAL DISTANCE INFLUENCES SINGLE CATEGORY
BELIEFS FOR NEW PRODUCTS
that they then use these miscalculations to estimate future events, they are often left making
“choices that fail to optimize hedonic experience” (Wirtz et al., 2003, p. 522). It is in this respect
that most prospective judgments about the future tend to be inflated (or deflated) by retrospective
inferences about the past (Shacter et al., 2007; Tulving, 2002). This suggests that if consumers
were to imagine using the iWatch, their preferences may have more to do with what they have
historically done with other Apple products. Therefore, despite having the goal of purchasing a
wristwatch, mp3 quality may matter more than timekeeping performance.
The above prediction is at odds with the widely endorsed belief that features which are
central to a product’s goal constitute a higher-level construal, and thus consumers put more
weight on these attributes when imagining the future (Kim, Park, & Wyer, 2009; Tope &
Liberman, 2000). The results of two experiments challenge this assumption. At the broadest
level, the results suggest that people are more likely to focus on the characteristics of a new
product in the near term, but process how they would use the new product when simulating the
distant future. Consequently, current goals inform categorization and preference for new
products in the near term, but the most plausible usage routines inform categorization and
preference for new products when simulating the distant future. Hence, when it comes to new
products, there may be more to temporally inconsistent preference than goal-dependent
construals.
2. Theoretical Framework
There is a wealth of research examining the circumstances when preference for an event or
object will change over time (Kim et al., 2009; Soman, 1998; 2003; Trope & Liberman, 2000;
2003; Zhao, Hoeffler, & Zauberman, 2007). A well-documented finding is that people tend to
Running Head: HOW TEMPORAL DISTANCE INFLUENCES SINGLE CATEGORY
BELIEFS FOR NEW PRODUCTS
focus on concrete aspects of an object in the near future and abstract aspects of an object in the
distant future (Trope & Liberman, 2003). This leads people to think more concretely and put
more weight on low-level characteristics in the near term (how feasible is this product?),
whereas they think more abstractly and put more weight on high-level characteristics in the
distant future (how desirable is this product?). It is believed this shift in construal is what leads
to temporally inconsistent preferences (Trope & Liberman, 2000; 2003).
In a recent example, Kim et al. (2009) replicated a seminal study by Trope and Liberman
(2000; study 3). The authors found that when consumers were shown a new radio set with
positive (negative) sound-related features and negative (positive) clock-related features, they
considered sound-related features regardless of whether they planned to use the radio
immediately or in the future, but considered clock-related features more so in the immediate
context. The authors interpreted this as evidence that consumers consider high-level, desirabilityrelated features regardless of when they anticipate using a product, but also consider low-level,
feasibility-related features when anticipating immediate consumption. This interpretation was
based on Trope and Liberman’s (2000) distinction between central and peripheral features.
Trope and Liberman (2000) argued that whether a feature is perceived as central or
peripheral depends on the product’s goal. For example, if one had the goal of purchasing a new
radio, and if there was a choice between a radio with good sound functions but poor clock
functions, and a radio with good clock functions but poor sound functions, sound quality should
be more central than clock quality—given the product’s goal. Trope and Liberman (2000)
propose that, “features that are relevant to the product’s intended goal are more central than
goal-irrelevant features and therefore constitute a higher level of construal [italics added]” (p.
882). Temporal Construal Theory predicts that, “preference for options with a positive high-level
Running Head: HOW TEMPORAL DISTANCE INFLUENCES SINGLE CATEGORY
BELIEFS FOR NEW PRODUCTS
construal over options with a negative high-level construal will be stronger in the distant future
than in the near future” (Trope & Liberman, 2000, p. 880). Hence, Trope and Liberman predicted
and indeed found that preference for a radio with good sound-related functions but poor clockrelated functions increases over time, whereas preference for a radio with poor sound-related
functions but good clock-related functions decreases over time. Again, this is presumably
contingent on consumers wanting to purchase a radio. If consumers wanted to purchase a clock,
one would expect the opposite pattern of effects. However, this manipulation was absent from
both Kim et al. (2009) and Trope and Liberman (2000).
Understanding goal-dependent construals is central to understanding temporally
inconsistent preference. It is not just a matter of a feature being perceived as feasible or
desirable, but also a matter of how the feature is construed relative to the individual’s reason for
purchasing the product (Trope & Liberman, 2000). Researchers have adopted the assumption
that central features are more desirable whereas peripheral features are more feasible, and
temporal distance enhances the desirable aspects of a product (Kim et al., 2009; Zhao et al.,
2007). “Desirability refers to the value of an action’s end state, whereas feasibility refers to the
ease or difficulty of the means to reach the end state” (Zhao et al., 2007, p. 380). Hence, if the
goal was to purchase a radio, the end state would be to listen to music; however, poor clockrelated functions may carry weight at the point of purchase. If so, altering the goal from
purchasing a radio to purchasing a clock should reverse which features are seen as desirable and
feasible in the Kim et al. paper (2009). Yet there is reason to predict that this will not happen.
There is a fundamental difference between focusing on the present and imagining the
future, and arguably this difference extends well-beyond the nature of construal to incorporate
unique characteristics of the prospective context. It is well-documented that consumers tend to be
Running Head: HOW TEMPORAL DISTANCE INFLUENCES SINGLE CATEGORY
BELIEFS FOR NEW PRODUCTS
reluctant to simulate novel usage scenarios, and instead favor imagining consumption routines
that are known or familiar (Zhao, Hoeffler, & Dhal, 2009). Zhao et al. (2009) refer to this as
“selecting the path of least resistance” (p. 46). It is believed that this approach is favored because
it mitigates uncertainty and because it requires little cognitive effort (Ward, 1994).
Usage routines are a strong determinant of future behavior because consumers tend to
perceive the core intent of a product based on “the benefit combinations afforded by the product,
and [how] such benefit combinations are related systematically to usage appropriateness [italics
original]” (Ratneshwar & Shocker, 1991, p. 282). Hence, perceptions of usage appropriateness
can activate schema-relevant information. In fact, Ratneshwar and Shocker (1991) found that
perceptions of use could even alter prototypicality estimates. This finding is particularly relevant
when discussing goal-dependent construals because usage routines share a relationship with
goal-derived categorization (Barsalou, 1985; Ratneshwar, Pechmann, & Shocker, 1996).
Goal-derived categories are created primarily with respect to the fulfillment of goals
(Barsalou, 1985; Ratneshwar et al., 1996). Consider if one were to activate the goal of finding
something to wear when going to the beach. Given the goal, sunglasses and a baseball cap would
be equally accessible despite constituting distinct taxonomic structures. It is in this respect that
goal-derived categories are context dependent, such that shared features become salient only
when the goal is activated (Barsalou, 1985). This activation not only rests with the individual
(e.g., having fun at the beach), but also with the context or purpose prompting the comparison
(e.g., things to use to protect yourself from the sun). The key is that the situational context has
considerable influence on how people perceive their environment (Ratneshwar et al., 2001).
Central to the idea of situational goals is the notion of automatic goal pursuit and habit
formation (Aarts & Dijksterhuis, 2000). Usage routines tend to develop over time through
Running Head: HOW TEMPORAL DISTANCE INFLUENCES SINGLE CATEGORY
BELIEFS FOR NEW PRODUCTS
recurrent behavioral choices made to attain the same goal (Aarts & Dijksterhuis, 2000; Bargh &
Gollwitzer, 1994; Kruglanski et al., 2002). This tends to build a rather strong association
between the goal (e.g., “getting to work on time”) and the action (e.g., “looking at my
wristwatch”). Repeated execution of an action to achieve a goal strengthens the association, and
thus facilitates the effectuation of similar actions in the future (e.g., “I constantly look at my
wristwatch until I get to work”). It is through this process that habits develop via automatic goaldirected behaviors (Aarts & Dijksterhuis, 2000). Therefore, simulating usage routines (e.g.,
interacting with a clock-radio) may directly activate an automatic representation (e.g., listening
to music) that need not be consistent with the personal goal (e.g., purchasing a clock to keep on
schedule). One does not need conscious awareness to guide goal-directed behavior.
In sum, if people tend to simulate known or familiar usage routines (Zhao et al., 2009), it
seems plausible that preference inconsistency over time may depend to a large extent on past
experience and how this influences categorization. For example, regardless of whether a
consumer purchases a clock-radio to keep on schedule in the morning, they may be more likely
to imagine listening to music when simulating the distant future because that is what they have
historically done with similar products. In such a case, the usage simulation would be more
robust than the personal goal (Aarts & Dijksterhuis, 2000; Ratneshwar et al., 2001), and category
activation would lead to the product being perceived as more prototypical of a radio than a clock
(Ratneshwar & Shocker, 1991). Given that inferences tend to align with prototypicality estimates
(Gregan-Paxton et al., 2005; Noseworthy & Goode, 2011), sound quality should then weigh
more heavily than clock quality. This interpretation is quite distinct from what is currently being
advocated in the literature on goal-dependent construals. The following two studies were
designed to test these predictions.
Running Head: HOW TEMPORAL DISTANCE INFLUENCES SINGLE CATEGORY
BELIEFS FOR NEW PRODUCTS
3. Study 1
3.1 Methodology
Participants and design. Participants (N = 216; 52% females; Mage = 27.5) were recruited
through newspaper advertisements and public posters, and paid $10 for participating in the study.
Participants were randomly assigned to one of eight conditions in a 2 (target: sound-positive vs.
clock-positive) × 2 (temporal distance: near future vs. distant future) × 2 (goal cue: wristwatch
vs. mp3 player) between-subjects factorial design. The target product chosen for this study was
Apple’s new iWatch (adopted from Noseworthy, et al., 2012; see appendix).
A pretest (n = 46) was conducted to allow for an a priori prediction of preference over
time. Participants were shown the iWatch and were given two-minutes to simulate interacting
with the product before being asked to rate whether they simulated common wristwatch activities
(looking at the time) or common mp3 player activities (listening to music). Participants
responded using a nine-point bi-polar scale (anchored: -4 = exclusively wristwatch activities; 4 =
exclusively mp3 activities; 0 = an equal number of both). The average for the sample was 3.06.
This was not particularly surprising given the strong association of the Apple brand to the mp3
category (cf. Noseworthy et al., 2012, p. 534). Nevertheless, this finding allowed for the
prediction that if people do indeed favor imagining common usage routines (Zhao et al., 2009),
then they should simulate using the iWatch as an mp3 player (as opposed to a wristwatch) when
imagining the future, regardless of which category is activated in the present.
3.2 Procedures and dependent measures.
The task began by asking participants to assume one of the following scenarios: “imagine
that your current mp3 player (wristwatch) just broke and you need to buy a new one to listen to
Running Head: HOW TEMPORAL DISTANCE INFLUENCES SINGLE CATEGORY
BELIEFS FOR NEW PRODUCTS
your favorite music while you’re on the go (to make sure you get to work on time in the
evenings). All of a sudden, while flipping through a magazine, you come across the following
advertisement (shown below).” After viewing the iWatch (appendix), participants were asked to
read one of the following scenarios and then close their eyes for two-minutes and imagine that
specific scenario occurring tomorrow (one year from now):
“Imagine that tomorrow [one year from now] you purchase the iWatch and you
find that the sound going through the wireless in-ear headphones is crystal clear.
You can hear every aspect of your favorite music! Unfortunately, the white on
black contrast within the analogue face makes it very difficult to keep track of
time, particularly in the evenings or when it’s dark.”
“Imagine that tomorrow [one year from now] you purchase the iWatch and you
find that the white on black contrast within the analogue face makes it very easy
to keep track of time, particularly in the evening or when it’s dark! Unfortunately,
the sound going through the wireless in-ear headphones is very poor. You can
hardly hear any aspect of your favorite music!”
The scenarios were designed to be heavy-handed, in that the positive feature directly
benefited the personal goal, whereas the negative feature directly went against it. This made the
test conservative by biasing the study as strongly in favor of the personal goal as possible. Upon
reading the scenario, participants were asked to evaluate the iWatch for use either the next day
(near future) or one-year from now (distant future). The ratings were indicated on a scale ranging
Running Head: HOW TEMPORAL DISTANCE INFLUENCES SINGLE CATEGORY
BELIEFS FOR NEW PRODUCTS
from 1 (unsatisfactory) to 7 (satisfactory; Kim et al., 2009; Trope & Liberman, 2000). To test for
an emphasis on desirability versus feasibility, participants were then asked to respond to 10
seven-point semantic differential items adopted from Voss, Spangenberg, & Grohmann (2003).
Five of the items captured participants’ perceived utilitarian benefits (effective/ineffective,
helpful/unhelpful, functional/not functional, necessary/unnecessary, practical/impractical) and
the other five captured participants’ perceived hedonic benefits (fun/not fun, dull/exciting, not
delightful/delightful, not thrilling/thrilling, enjoyable/unenjoyable). The items were adopted
given that utilitarianism and hedonism are not polar ends along a continuum, but rather two
distinct attitude components (Okada, 2005).
To test for a shift in category activation, participants were administered a spatial
classification task. Specifically, participants were given the layout of a hypothetical department
store with several departments, including computers and computer accessories, clothing,
wristwatches and jewelry, televisions and DVD players, cell phones and mp3 players, and
kitchen appliances (Moreau, Markman, & Lehmann, 2001). Participants were asked, “If you
were shopping for the iWatch in the store shown below, where is the FIRST place in the store
you would go to find it?” The department selected signified their schematic representation of the
device (coded: 0 = wristwatches; 1 = mp3 players; no other locations were selected). The
exercise concluded by asking participants to report basic demographic information.
3.3 Results
Category activation. A binary logistic regression on the department store classification task
(0 = wristwatches; 1 = mp3 players) as the dependent variable and temporal distance, target, and
goal cue as the predictor variables, revealed a significant goal cue × temporal distance
Running Head: HOW TEMPORAL DISTANCE INFLUENCES SINGLE CATEGORY
BELIEFS FOR NEW PRODUCTS
interaction, B = 1.67, SE = .87, p = .057, OR = 5.32. The interaction was such that when
simulating the near future, 72% of participants (39 of 54) identified the iWatch as an mp3 player
when the goal was to buy an mp3 player, whereas 63% (34 of 54) identified the iWatch as a
wristwatch when the goal was to buy a wristwatch, χ 2(1) = 13.49, p < .001, ϕ = .35. As predicted,
when simulating the distant future, the majority of participants identified the iWatch as an mp3
player regardless of whether the goal was to buy a wristwatch (61%) or an mp3 player (74%; p =
.22). No other significant effects were recorded (ps > .30).
Target evaluations. An analysis of target evaluations as a function of temporal distance,
target, and goal cue, yielded a significant three-way interaction, F (1,208) = 4.73, p < .05, η2 =
.02. The nature of the three-way interaction was such that in the near future there was a
significant goal cue × target interaction, F (1,208) = 20.02, p < .001. As illustrated in table 1,
simple effects revealed that when the goal was to buy a wristwatch, participants evaluated the
clock-positive target more favorably (M = 3.96) than the sound-positive target (M = 3.11), F
(1,208) = 9.19, p < .005. When the goal was to buy an mp3 player, participants evaluated the
sound-positive target more favorably (M = 3.89) than the clock-positive target (M = 2.96), F
(1,208) = 10.86, p < .001. Nevertheless, this all changed when participants imagined the distant
future. In the distant future condition, the interaction between goal cue and target was not
significant (p = .16). The only result was a main effect of target; participants evaluated the
sound-positive target (M = 4.20) more favorably than the clock-positive target (M = 3.04), F
(1,208) = 34.49, p < .001. Hence, it seemed that personal goals influenced evaluations in the near
future but not in the distant future.
Running Head: HOW TEMPORAL DISTANCE INFLUENCES SINGLE CATEGORY
BELIEFS FOR NEW PRODUCTS
Table 1: Means, Proportions, Standard Deviations and Cell Counts for Study 1
Near Future
Wristwatch Goal
Mp3 Goal
SoundClockSoundClockPositive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Category Activation
Target Evaluation
Hedonism
Utilitarianism
Cell Size
Distant Future
Wristwatch Goal
Mp3 Goal
SoundClockSoundClockPositive
Positive
Positive
Positive
40.7%
3.11(1.01)
4.07(1.13)
3.91(1.14)
33.3%
3.96(0.85)
4.09(0.96)
4.54(1.02)
66.7%
3.89(0.89)
4.01(1.11)
4.61(0.86)
77.8%
2.96(1.19)
3.89(1.07)
4.05(0.88)
63.0%
4.11(1.12)
4.57(0.97)
4.05(1.18)
27
27
27
27
27
59.2%
3.22(1.12)
4.13(1.19)
4.00(1.32)
27
74.1%
4.30(0.99)
4.79(1.03)
4.01(1.23)
74.1%
2.85(1.02)
3.92(1.06)
3.97(0.89)
27
27
Note—Standard deviations are reported in parentheses; category activation = % of participants that identified the iWatch as an mp3
player relative to a wristwatch.
Perceived hedonic benefits. An analysis of perceived hedonic benefits (α = .81) as a
function of temporal distance, target, and goal cue, yielded a significant temporal distance ×
target interaction, F (1,208) = 4.31, p < .05, η2 = .02. Simple effects revealed that in the near
future condition there was no difference in perceived hedonic benefits (MSound_Pos = 4.04 vs.
MClock_Pos = 3.99, F < 1). However, in the distant future condition participants perceived greater
hedonic benefits when imagining the sound positive target (M = 4.68) rather than the clock
positive target (M = 4.03), F (1,208) = 10.05, p < .005. To determine whether this increase in
perceived hedonic benefits accounted for the increase in target evaluations, a moderated
mediation analysis was conducted (Muller, Judd, & Yzerbyt, 2005; Preacher, Rucker, & Hayes,
2007). A bias corrected bootstrap with 5000 draws was administered to examine the conditional
indirect effect (Hayes, 2012; model 7; taking into account the two-way interaction). As
predicted, perceived hedonic benefits mediated the relationship between target features and
target evaluations when participants imagined interacting with the product in the distant future,
95% CI: -34, -.06, but not in the near future, 95% CI: -11, .09.
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Perceived utilitarian benefits. An analysis of perceived utilitarian benefits (α = .79) as a
function of temporal distance, target, and goal cue, yielded a significant three-way interaction, F
(1,208) = 4.16, p < .05, η2 = .02. In step with the evaluation results, the nature of the three-way
interaction was such that in the near future there was a significant goal cue × target interaction,
F (1,208) = 8.23, p < .01. Simple effects revealed that when the goal was to buy a wristwatch,
participants believed the clock-positive target offered more utilitarian benefits (M = 4.54) than
the sound-positive target (M = 3.91), F (1,208) = 4.59, p < .05. When the goal was to buy an mp3
player, participants believed the sound-positive target offered more utilitarian benefits (M = 4.61)
than the clock-positive target (M = 4.05), F (1,208) = 3.67, p = .055. Once again, the pattern of
effects differed in the distant future condition. In fact, unlike the evaluation results, no effect
approached significance (Fs < 1). A moderated mediation analysis (Hayes, 2012; model 11;
taking into account the three-way interaction) confirmed that perceived utilitarian benefits
mediated the relationship between goal cue and target evaluations when temporal distance was
low and when the positive features aligned with either the mp3 goal, 95% CI: -37, -.02, or
wristwatch goal, 95% CI: .01, .27. No other significant effects were recorded. Hence, when
considered with the hedonic benefits, it appeared that two discrete attitudinal components were at
play depending on whether participants were simulating near or distant consumption.
3.4 Discussion
The results of study 1 confirm that people focused more on how a new product’s utility
aligns with their personal goals when simulating the near future, whereas they focused on how
the product’s hedonic qualities aligned with a common usage routine when simulating the distant
future. Of course, it is well known that people focus on feasibility in the near term and
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desirability in the long-term. However, study 1 suggests this may not be the result of goaldependent construals. It may simply be that people are more likely to categorize a new product in
line with their personal goals in the near future, but categorize a new product in line with the
most plausible usage experience in the distant future. Indeed, usage context and thematic
positioning have been shown to impact how products are understood (Barsalou, 1985;
Noseworthy, Finlay, & Islam, 2010). This raises a unique means of testing the proposition. If the
observed effects are the result of people projecting themselves into a usage routine, then
changing the simulated routine should shift categorization and subsequently alter preference. The
key is that changing the simulation should have no effect in the near future. Study 2 was
designed to test this prediction.
4. Study 2
4.1 Methodology
Participants and design. Students (N = 205; 51% female; Mage = 20.1) participated in the
study in exchange for course credit, and were randomly assigned to one of eight conditions in a 2
(temporal distance: near future vs. distant future) × 2 (target valence: sunglasses-positive vs. mp3
player-positive) × 2 (simulation: public vs. private) between-subjects factorial design. The target
product chosen for this study was Vusix’s new VR-920 sunglasses-mp3 player (see appendix).
Vusix was selected for several reasons: First, study 1 revealed that participants favored
sound-related attributes in the distant future. This raised the need to rule out the experiential
nature of music. Second, a pretest (n = 60) confirmed there was little brand awareness linking the
Vusix brand to either sunglasses or mp3 players. The pretest also revealed that although
participants found the VR-920 to be interesting, the majority (68%) expressed explicit concerns
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about whether they would want to be seen wearing it in public (e.g., “These would make me look
silly”). This was important because if participants travel forward in time using the most plausible
usage routine, the attributes that relate to the routine, even if they play on the anxiety of ‘looking
silly,’ should be more salient. Hence, regardless of the personal goal, it was predicted that the
sunglasses category would activate in the future when individuals simulate public consumption
rather than private consumption.
4.2 Procedures and dependent measures.
The procedures were consistent with study 1 with two key exceptions: first, in line with
prior work, the product’s goal was held constant (Kim et al., 2009; Trope & Liberman, 2000).
All participants viewed the Vusix VR-920 with the goal of purchasing a new mp3 player. This
made the test conservative by biasing the goal in favor of sound-related attributes and testing
whether the simulation could shift preference towards sight-related attributes. Second, given that
default memory-based simulation is malleable (Zhao et al., 2009) and social context influences
consumption behavior (Di Muro & Noseworthy, 2013), each goal manipulation was written such
that it focused on either the public domain (i.e., listening to music at the beach) or private
domain (i.e., listening to music alone in your backyard). The specific scenarios are shown below:
#1 Public – Sound Positive: Imagine that tomorrow [one year from now] you will
purchase the Vusix VR-920 (shown below). You need to pick up a new mp3
player for the summer so that you can listen to your favorite tunes while catching
some sun at the beach. Right after purchasing the VR-920, you realize the sound
going through it is crystal clear. You can hear every aspect of your favorite Mp3s!
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Unfortunately, the sunglasses look somewhat silly on your face and they restrict
your field of vision.”
#2 Public – Sight Positive: Imagine that tomorrow [one year from now] you will
purchase the Vusix VR-920 (shown below). You need to pick up a new mp3
player for the summer so that you can listen to your favorite tunes while catching
some sun at the beach. Right after purchasing the VR-920, you realize that they
look pretty cool on you and they really enhance your field of vision.
Unfortunately, the sound going through the headphones is really poor. You can
hardly hear your favorite Mp3s!”
#3 Private – Sound Positive: Imagine that tomorrow [one year from now] you will
purchase the Vusix VR-920 (shown below). You need to pick up a new mp3
player for the summer so that you can listen to your favorite tunes while catching
some sun in your backyard. Right after purchasing the VR-920, you realize the
sound going through it is crystal clear. You can hear every aspect of your favorite
Mp3s! Unfortunately, the sunglasses look somewhat silly on your face and they
restrict your field of vision.”
#4 Private – Sight Positive: Imagine that tomorrow [one year from now] you will
purchase the Vusix VR-920 (shown below). You need to pick up a new mp3
player for the summer so that you can listen to your favorite tunes while catching
some sun in your backyard. Right after purchasing the VR-920, you realize that
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they look pretty cool on you and they really enhance your field of vision.
Unfortunately, the sound going through the headphones is really poor. You can
hardly hear your favorite Mp3s!”
After participants read the scenario and viewed the ad, the experimenter instructed them to
read the scenario one more time and then close their eyes for two minutes and visualize what it
would be like to use the VR-920 tomorrow (one year from now) at the beach with friends (alone
in their backyard). Immediately following the two-minute visualization period, participants were
asked to evaluate the VR-920 (using the same evaluation items from study 1). They then
responded to the same set of 10 items measuring perceived hedonic and utilitarian benefits
(discussed in study 1). Following this, participants were asked to describe the mental pictures
they conjured during the visualization task. This served as a manipulation check to code for
concrete versus abstract processing (Kim & John, 2008).
After completing the measures, participants were administered a latency-association task
(LAT). The LAT assigns concepts to specific keys (e.g., “A” = sunglasses; “L” = mp3 players),
and then randomly displays consecutive objects in the center of a display (e.g., five different
pairs of sunglasses, five different mp3 players, and the Vusix target). Participants were asked to
categorize the products as soon as they appeared on the screen by pressing the response key that
best represents the product’s category. Both categorization judgments and response latencies
were collected. The study concluded by administering a binary recollection task to test whether
participants could recall the personal goal. Specifically, on the concluding screen, participants
were asked to recall whether the scenario required them to pick up a new mp3 player or a new
pair of sunglasses (coded: 1 = mp3 player; 2 = sunglasses; 3 = can’t remember).
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4.3 Results
Manipulation checks. Two unaffiliated coders (r = .92) categorized participants’ selfdescribed simulations for whether they were explicitly public (consumed around others) or
private (consumed in isolation from others), and for whether the descriptions were abstract
(discussing peripheral details about the experience of using the product) or concrete (discussing
the constituent aspects of the product). In both cases, an index was created by taking the
difference between the two descriptions, divided by the total number of descriptions. In line with
the simulation manipulation, participants were more likely to imagine consuming around others
in the public consumption condition (M = .11) and consuming alone in the private consumption
condition (M = -.04), F (1,197) = 8.28, p < .005, η2 = .04. No other effects approached
significance (ps > .20). Similarly, in line with the temporal manipulation, participants were more
likely to represent the product abstractly in the distant future (M = -.09) and concretely in the
near future (M = .10), F (1,197) = 33.02, p < .001, η2 = .14. No other effects approached
significance (ps > .15). Finally, a multinomial logistic regression on participants’ personal goal
recollections (1 = mp3 player; 2 = sunglasses; 3 = can’t remember) as a function of temporal
distance, target valence, and simulation yielded no significant effects (ps > .40). Regardless of
the experimental condition, between 64% and 80% of participants recalled that the explicit
personal goal was to purchase a new mp3 player.
Category activation. Despite the finding that individuals were quite adept at recalling the
personal goal, a binary logistic regression on participants’ categorization judgments (0 = mp3
player; 1 = sunglasses) yielded a marginally significant simulation × temporal distance
interaction, B = -.81, SE = .83, p = .08, OR = .47. The nature of the interaction was such that in
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the near future condition, the majority of participants classified the Vusix as an mp3 player,
regardless of whether they simulated private consumption (70.6%; 36 of 51) or public
consumption (57.7%; 30 of 52, p = .22). However, participants in the distant future condition
were more likely to classify the Vusix as an mp3 player in the private consumption condition
(56.9%; 29 of 51) and as a pair of sunglasses in the public consumption condition (64.5%; 33 of
51), χ2(1) = 4.77, p < .05, ϕ = -.22. Despite the corresponding pattern shown in table 2, the logtransformed latencies yielded no significant difference among the classifications (ps > .10).
Table 2: Means, Proportions, Standard Deviations and Cell Counts for Study 2
Near Future
Private
Public
SoundSightSoundSightPositive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Goal Recall (mp3)
Category Activation
Category Latencies
Target Evaluation
Hedonism
Utilitarianism
Cell Size
Distant Future
Private
Public
SoundPositive
SightPositive
SoundPositive
SightPositive
76.9%
69.2%
64.0%
80.8%
84.0%
80.0%
73.1%
76.0%
68.0%
2,612
3.77(1.14)
4.53(0.97)
4.37(1.16)
73.1%
3,326
3.08(1.15)
4.11(1.23)
3.88(1.02)
65.4%
2,870
3.56(0.87)
4.56(1.25)
4.30(1.27)
50.0%
3,405
2.89(1.03)
4.26(1.20)
4.11(1.03)
57.7%
2,998
3.92(0.91)
4.70(1.11)
4.14(1.12)
25
26
26
25
26
56.0%
3,388
2.73(1.04)
3.85(1.07)
4.02(0.98)
26
48.0%
3,104
3.15(1.05)
3.29(0.97)
3.92(1.16)
25
23.1%
2,678
3.65(0.90)
4.46(1.09)
4.28(1.05)
26
Note—Standard deviations are reported in parentheses; goal recall = % of participants in each cell that recalled the personal goal was to
purchase a new mp3 player; category activation = % of participants that identified the Vusix as an mp3 player relative to a pair of
sunglasses; category latencies reported in raw milliseconds.
Target evaluations. An analysis of target evaluations as a function of temporal distance, target
valence, and simulation, yielded a significant three-way interaction, F(1,197) = 8.70, p < .01, η2
= .03. The nature of the interaction was such that in the near future, participants evaluated the
sound-positive target more favorably (M = 3.67) than the sight-positive target (M = 2.98), F(1,
197) = 11.49, p < .005. In the distant future there was a significant target valence × simulation
interaction, F(1,197) = 17.14, p < .001. As illustrated in table 2 simple effects revealed that
participants in the private consumption condition evaluated the sound-positive target more
favorably (M = 3.92) than the sight-positive target (M = 2.73), F(1,197) = 17.45, p < .001.
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However, participants in the public consumption condition evaluated the sight-positive target
more favorably (M = 3.65) than the sound-positive target (M = 3.15), F(1,197) = 3.15, p = .078.
This finding supports the pattern observed in the category activation results.
Perceived hedonic and utilitarian benefits. An analysis of perceived hedonic benefits (α =
.87) also yielded a significant three-way interaction, F(1,197) = 9.31, p < .005, η2 = .04. The
nature of the interaction was such that when simulating the near future, participants perceived
somewhat greater hedonic benefits for the sound-positive target (M = 4.54) than the sightpositive target (M = 4.19), F(1,197) = 2.65, p = .10. In the distant future there was a significant
target valence × simulation interaction, F(1,197) = 21.19, p < .001. Simple effects revealed that
participants in the private consumption condition also perceived greater hedonic benefits for the
sound-positive target (M = 4.70) than the sight-positive target (M = 3.85), F(1,197) = 7.43, p <
.01. However, in line with the evaluation results, the effect reversed in the public consumption
condition (Msight_pos = 4.46 vs. Msound_pos = 3.29), F(1,197) = 14.33, p < .001. It is worth pointing
out that the lowest rating for perceived hedonic benefits occurred in the public, sound positive
condition, which makes sense when one considers it was sight negative (i.e., it made participants
look silly). This cell differed from a linear combination of all other cells, t (197) = -4.52, p <
.001. Despite the pattern illustrated in table 2, the analysis of perceived utilitarian benefits
yielded no significant results (ps > .14).
4.4 Discussion
The results of study 2 extend the findings from study 1 by confirming that the way in
which people simulate the distant future can impact category activation and new product
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preference. Importantly, these same simulations have little bearing on preference in the near
term. When participants imagined a future where they were wearing the Vusix around others,
they were more likely to classify VR-920 as a pair of sunglasses. Hence, it is not surprising then
that the aesthetic quality of the sunglasses carried more weight than the sound quality.
Importantly, the explicit reason for buying the Vusix remained intact, but it was rendered
irrelevant because it was no longer consistent with how the participant imagined using the
product. This confirms that usage routines override personal goals and influence categorization
when individuals simulate future consumption.
5. General Discussion
Consider Apple’s new iWatch. The iWatch can be described in various ways, and these
descriptions can be ordered on a continuum from concrete (e.g., purchasing the best features for
the best price) to abstract (e.g., purchasing the one that will go best with my wardrobe). On one
end of the continuum, concrete construals define an object in terms of its constituent parts,
whereas on the other end, abstract construals define an object in relation to its broader context
(Libby & Eibach, 2011). However, only the latter relies on mental simulation, which is the
ability to project one’s self into an imaginary future (Taylor, Pham, Rivkin, & Armor, 1998;
Tulving, 2002). The findings from two studies suggest that travelling forward in time can shift
categorization to be in line with historic usage routines. Consistent with the literature on
automatic goal pursuit, the usage situation tends to override immediate personal goals. This
finding challenges the fundamental assumption that temporally inconsistent preference results
from features being perceived as more or less central to a personal goal. Hence, goal-dependent
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construals may be neither a sufficient nor a necessary assumption to account for changes in
attribute preference over time.
That said, it is important to note that the intent of this work was not to challenge the basic
premise of temporal construal theory or construal level theory in general, the merits of which
have been well-established (see Trope, Liberman, & Wakslak, 2007). However, what this paper
does challenge is the belief that temporally inconsistent preference for product features is the
result of features being perceived as high-level or low-level relative to a goal. If one accepts that
personal goals need not remain intact when consumers imagine the future, the most parsimonious
explanation for an increase (decrease) in evaluations for a positive (negative) desirability-related
feature is simply affective forecasting (Baron, 1992; Kahneman, 1994; Loewenstein & Prelec,
1993; Mellers, 2000; Mellers & McGraw, 2001; Snell, Gibbs, & Varey, 1995).
Consumers often purchase products in anticipation of what the usage experience will be.
As a result, the product is consumed in prospect. The problem is prospective simulations tend to
be biased by affect (Baron, 1992; Kahneman, 1994; Loewenstein & Prelec, 1993; Mellers, 2000;
Mellers & McGraw, 2001). Therefore, when one imagines using the iWatch, for example, one
does not imagine it being bulky or cumbersome. In the end, consumers are often left
disappointed because the true usage experience seldom lives up to an idealized expectation.
It may be tempting to dismiss the role of affect given that Trope and Liberman (2000)
explicitly argued in favor of temporal construal theory over valence-dependent time
discounting—the idea that temporal distance will increase (decrease) the attractiveness of an
object to the extent it is associated with positive (negative features; Lewin, 1951; Miller, 1944).
The argument being, the clock-positive but sound-negative radio and the clock-negative but
sound-positive radio, equally “give rise to a conflict between positive and negative features
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[italic added]” (Trope & Liberman, 2000, p. 882). However, this line of reasoning assumes that
imagining a radio with good sound-related features but poor clock-related features is of equal
valence as imagining a radio with poor sound-related features but good clock-related features.
This is difficult to accept, particularly when the goal in both instances was to listen to music.
5.1 Future Research and Limitations
Researchers have demonstrated that once a concept is activated (e.g., radio), people tend to
only consider the corresponding relevant attributes (e.g., sound quality) and ignore the peripheral
attributes (e.g., clock quality; Gregan-Paxton et al., 2005; Noseworthy et al., 2012; Rajagopal &
Burnkrant, 2009). Under this interpretation, the current results would be perfectly consistent with
valence-dependent time discounting. Temporal distance increased the attractiveness of the
product to the extent that the activated category was associated with positive or negative
features. It is in this respect that the findings lend additional insights to the literature on product
ambiguity. Much attention has been given to examining the circumstances when a consumer will
make multiple versus single category inferences when a product incorporates features that span
two or more categories (Murphy & Ross, 1999; 2010; Gill & Dubé, 2007). The results suggest
that this may alter as a function of the temporal frame. Future research could establish the
robustness of temporal distance in framing single category beliefs relative to some of the
currently favored cues (e.g., Gregan-Paxton et al., 2005; Moreau et al., 2001; Noseworthy &
Goode, 2011; Noseworthy et al., 2012; Rajagopal & Burnkrant, 2009).
Furthermore, the results indirectly support recent evidence that people tend to be more
likely to choose, and to believe they would be happier consuming experiences when adopting a
temporally distant perspective than when adopting a temporally proximate perspective (Van
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Boven & Gilovich, 2003). Material purchases are distinct from experiential purchases in that
material purchases tend to endure in one’s possession for an extended period of time, whereas
experiential purchases endure primarily in one’s memory (Carter & Gilovich, 2012). Future
research could examine the implications of temporal distance causing individuals to simulating
experiencing a material purchase. It seems probable that prospective simulations would be
subject to the same assumptions as intangible experiences (they too endure in one’s memory).
For example, recent evidence has shown the underlying mechanism for peoples’ preference for
experiences over material purchases is experiences are more closely associated with the self than
possessions (Carter & Gilovich, 2012). Hence, simulated usage routines could be biased by an
individual’s self-concept.
Finally, as with all research, there are limitations with the current work. First, the literature
on goal-dependent construals extends beyond central and peripheral features to focus on
transient-feasibility (features needed to achieve the goal) versus desirability (e.g., moving into an
apartment or living there; Kim et al., 2009; study 2). Although there is no reason to believe that
historic usage routines would not manifest in this context, this distinction was not tested in the
current work because it would simply be too difficult to isolate the usage routine from the
personal goal. That being said, it is important to note that this work is not questioning whether
people focus on feasibility in the near term and desirability in the distant future. The results of
study 2 support this observation. What it is challenging is the current belief for why this happens.
5.2 Managerial Implications
In order to remain competitive, firms must continuously develop and position innovative
products (Kaul & Rao, 1995). Furthermore, it is important for firms to involve consumers
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throughout the process of developing new products (Veryzer & Borja de Mozota, 2005; Veryzer,
1998a,b), especially since newness isn’t always advantageous (Dahl & Hoeffler, 2004; Arts,
Frambach & Bijmolt, 2011; Zhao, Hoeffler, & Dahl, 2012; Goode, Dahl, & Moreau, 2013). The
current findings suggest that managers should be mindful of the way in which their new product
testing panels temporally position products during evaluation as this can shift categorization and
override personal goals.
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Appendix
Study 1 Stimuli
Study 2 Stimuli
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Running Head: LES LEVIERS DE L’EXPERIENCE DE MARQUE
Les leviers de l’expérience de marque
Naoufel Remili, Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada
Résumé
L’objectif est de s’attarder, dans le contexte de l’industrie de la mode, sur les principaux leviers
qui conditionnent l’expérience de marque, à savoir les communautés de marques, le storytelling et les
environnements de vente. Une illustration de l’utilisation simultanée et cohérente de ces leviers dans une
entreprise est également présentée.
Mots-clés : expérience de marque, communautés de marque, storytelling, environnement de vente
Running Head: LES LEVIERS DE L’EXPERIENCE DE MARQUE
Les leviers de l’expérience de marque
Introduction
Le développement des marques est depuis quelques années au cœur des stratégies marketing. Les
mercaticiens ont bien compris que dans une société qui valorise l’image, le succès et l’égonomie, la
marque devient, pour une partie des consommateurs, un véhicule incontournable pour exprimer et
montrer ces valeurs centrales de nos sociétés contemporaines. Dans l’industrie de la mode, la place et le
rôle de la marque sont encore plus prépondérants à cause des spécificités de cette industrie. En effet, La
nature temporaire, changeante, voire éphémère de la mode constitue l’essence même de cette industrie
(Steele, 2010) et la gestion de la marque devient une stratégie pertinente pour mettre de l’avant une
personnalité, une coloration émotive, une philosophie plutôt que des produits qui passent souvent en un
coup de vent.
Dans cette perspective, l’objectif de ce travail est de s’attarder sur les principaux leviers sur
lesquels repose de plus en plus le succès des marques et qui constituent en même temps autant d’axes de
différenciation. Plus précisément, nous croyons que le principal défi pour les mercaticiens, spécialement
dans l’industrie de la mode, est d’arriver à faire vivre au consommateur l’expérience de la marque. C’est
dans ce sens que nous nous intéresserons à ce que nous appelons les leviers de l’expérience de marque à
savoir : les communautés de marques et les notions d’ambassadeurs ou connecteurs, le storytelling et
l’influence des environnements de vente.
Ce travail débutera par un rappel de la place centrale de la marque aujourd’hui, particulièrement
dans l’industrie de la mode, avant de parler du concept d’expérience de marque qui permet de cristalliser
l’essence même du message que la marque veut véhiculer et faire vivre à sa clientèle. Ensuite, les
différents leviers permettant justement d’y arriver seront développés avant de proposer une illustration de
l’utilisation simultanée et cohérente de ces leviers dans le contexte d’une entreprise montréalaise
Running Head: LES LEVIERS DE L’EXPERIENCE DE MARQUE
spécialisée dans les vêtements pour femmes. Nous finirons par quelques réflexions et recommandations
sur l’évolution probable de ce concept d’expérience de marque.
1. Le développement de la marque et du lien avec le consommateur
La marque de commerce a toujours été un des éléments clés de l’offre marketing. Toutefois, avec
l’évolution de la société et l’importance de l’image que le consommateur veut faire véhiculer autour de
soi, les marques n’ont jamais été aussi populaires. Au-delà d’un produit, le consommateur achète
aujourd’hui une marque et surtout tout l’univers et la symbolique qui viennent avec. Dans les sociétés
occidentales où la religion est souvent délaissée, la consommation est la nouvelle religion. Descartes
disait je pense donc je suis alors qu’aujourd’hui la nouvelle maxime semble être : je consomme donc je
suis. Nous croyons dans ce sens qu’il est extrêmement important pour les mercaticiens de comprendre les
fondements de la consommation pour mieux élaborer leurs stratégies marketing. Cova et Cova (2004, p.
3) explique ainsi :
Aujourd'hui, on consomme surtout pour exister (identité) et non seulement pour vivre (besoins). C'est
par la consommation que l'on bâtit et l'on conforte son identité qui est de plus en plus mise à mal par le
chômage, le divorce, l'éclatement de la famille, la mobilité... Il ne s'agit donc plus simplement de
«faire ses courses« mais de «vivre des expériences» et le plus souvent des expériences dites
«incorporées» car elles font appel à tous les sens de l'individu.
La marque joue donc différents rôles aujourd’hui puisqu’elle permet non seulement de répondre à
des besoins physiologiques mais aussi, et de plus en plus, psychosociologiques. Par ailleurs, l’un des
enjeux importants entourant le développement d’une marque demeure le lien que l’entreprise doit
développer avec sa clientèle, et son maintien, voire son renouvellement, à travers le temps. Une marque
constitue en fait la promesse que fait un vendeur d’offrir régulièrement un ensemble de caractéristiques,
d’avantages et de services aux acheteurs (Kotler, Filiatrault et Turner, 2000). Cette promesse est une
Running Head: LES LEVIERS DE L’EXPERIENCE DE MARQUE
forme de contrat entre une entreprise et sa clientèle, tant que les termes du contrat sont respectés (par
exemple la qualité des produits, ou un certain univers que les produits d’une marque inspirent) le lien est
maintenu. Dans le cas contraire, il peut être rompu avec des incidences négatives sur la marque et son
image. Idéalement, le renouvellement de ce contrat dans le temps donne lieu à l’atteinte d’un pouvoir
affectif, souvent synonyme de fidélité. Gérer une marque implique ainsi «d’analyser et de faire évoluer
ces significations symboliques en suscitant certaines perceptions et certains sentiments chez les
consommateurs» (Kotler, Keller, Manceau et Dubois, 2009, p. 309).
Pour perpétuer ce lien vital avec le consommateur, il faut que les entreprises soient conscientes
des rôles que la marque joue aussi bien auprès du consommateur que sur un marché. Ces rôles peuvent
être résumés ainsi (Hoffman, 2008; Kotler, Keller, Manceau et Dubois, 2009; Lewi et Lacoeuilhe, 2012;
Tülin, Swait et Valenzuela, 2006):
 un rôle d’identification pour ses clients, qui expriment ce qu’ils sont à travers les marques qu’ils
achètent;
 pour l’entreprise un rôle fondamental de différenciation sur un marché et par rapport aux
concurrents;
 un rôle de facilitateur puisque la marque est considérée comme un raccourci dans des situations
de consommation en permettant de réduire l’incertitude et le risque perçu ainsi qu’un gain de
temps appréciable;
 un rôle de moteur de croissance puisqu’elle peut demander un prix assez élevé et opter pour des
extensions de marques.
Pour ce faire, les mercaticiens doivent construire une marque forte et appréciée et la développer à
travers le temps. L’objectif est que le marché cible puisse l’associer aux représentations voulues par
l’entreprise. Pour cette dernière ce développement se fait, comme le montre la figure suivante, à travers
Running Head: LES LEVIERS DE L’EXPERIENCE DE MARQUE
quatre véhicules à savoir les médias, les évènements, le logo et l’atmosphère de vente (Kotler, Filiatrault
et Turner, 2000). Le consommateur lui de son côté, confronté à ces véhicules, va rentrer en contact avec
la marque à travers les sentiments éprouvés et l’expérience vécue.
Médias
Évènements
Développer et
perpétuer une
marque
Atmosphère de
vente
Logo
Expériences
Sentiments
Consommateur
Figure 1: les interactions entre le consommateur et la marque
Running Head: LES LEVIERS DE L’EXPERIENCE DE MARQUE
À partir de là nous croyons que le principal défi pour les mercaticiens, spécialement dans
l’industrie de la mode, est d’arriver à faire vivre au consommateur l’expérience de la marque. Dans cette
perspective, différentes stratégies sont possibles et seront présentées un peu plus loin, mais d’abord, nous
allons nous attarder sur les spécificités de l’industrie qui nous intéresse, à savoir celle de la mode, avant
de préciser le concept d’expérience de marque (brand experience).
2- Les spécificités du marketing de la mode19 :
La mode n’est qu’un secteur parmi tant d’autres où le marketing occupe une place centrale. De ce
fait, la plupart des notions et stratégies fondamentales du marketing s’applique au domaine de la mode.
Néanmoins, il est important de mettre de l’avant un certain nombre d’éléments qui sont spécifiques à ce
domaine et surtout qui permettent de mieux comprendre les choix et les orientations que les entreprises
peuvent faire, notamment pour ce qui est du développement des marques. Rath, Petrizzi et Gill (2011; p.
7) rappellent dans ce sens que: «fashion marketing employs the same general concepts, activities, and
processes as the marketing of other products, but it has its own challenges and opportunities that arise
from the continually changing nature of fashion».
La nature temporaire, changeante, voire éphémère de la mode constitue l’essence même de cette
industrie (Steele, 2010) et le marketing se doit de s’inscrire dans ce contexte de changement permanant.
Plus encore, peu de secteurs subissent autant l’influence des aspects sociaux et économiques que
l’industrie de la mode (Bohdanowicz et Clamp, 1994). À partir de là nous pouvons définir le marketing de
la mode comme le processus de conception et de mise en marchés de produits mode, à savoir des
vêtements, accessoires, chaussures et cosmétiques désirés par un ensemble de consommateurs dans un
19
Pour des raisons de simplicité, le terme mode va au-delà des produits saisonniers pour inclure également des
produits plus basiques, plus durables.
Running Head: LES LEVIERS DE L’EXPERIENCE DE MARQUE
contexte social et économique donné. En résumé, les mercaticiens qui œuvrent dans ce domaine doivent
prendre en considération un certain nombre de spécificités qui leur permettent d’élaborer des choix plus
adaptés et ancrés dans l’ère du temps, parmi les plus importantes, nous pouvons citer :
 L’acte d’achat pour les produits de mode est en partie un acte émotif.
 La demande pour les produits de mode est assez volatile et changeante
 La fréquence des nouveautés est assez importante: le cycle de vie du produit de mode est court
relativement à d’autres produits.
 La mode est cyclique: le marketing permet de la réinventer, de la renouveler.
Dans un des ouvrages de marketing les plus utilisés dans les Écoles de commerce, Kotler,
Filiatrault et Turner (2000) estiment que le marketing est d’autant plus important que le domaine
d’activité est caractérisé par un changement rapide des habitudes d’achat, donc des marchés caractérisés
par des besoins très changeants. Ce qui est le cas de l’industrie de la mode.
Maintenant que nous avons identifié les spécificités du marché qui nous intéresse, il serait utile de
s’attarder sur ce que voulons dire par le concept d’expérience de marque, élément central de ce travail et
qui constituent l’une des préoccupations majeures des mercaticiens œuvrant dans l’industrie de la mode
pour les raisons que nous venons d’évoquer.
2. L’expérience de la marque
Une marque, un individu, une rencontre et c’est peut-être le début d’une histoire. Cette histoire est le
fruit de l’immersion de l’individu dans l’univers de la marque, de leur capacité respective à créer du
lien et trouver le sens de ce lien. Le déroulé de cette histoire suggère qu’il y ait un début, un milieu et
une fin probable, peut-être pas, comme c’est le cas pour les marques qui savent traverser les
générations. (Breda, 2008 ; p. 3)
Running Head: LES LEVIERS DE L’EXPERIENCE DE MARQUE
Dans un marché comme celui de la mode caractérisé par une concurrence intense et une offre
beaucoup plus importante que la demande et où la chasse aux consommateurs est un défi quotidien,
l’approche expérientielle semble être un choix incontournable de différenciation. C’est une approche qui
permet de conquérir le cœur du consommateur, de faire appel à ses sentiments plutôt qu’à une certaine
rationalité, et de nouer des liens plus forts et surtout polysensoriels avec la marque. Initiée et structurée
par l’article fondateur de Holbrook et Hirschman (1982) cette expérience de marque peut être définie
comme un épisode personnel et subjectif, chargé d’émotion, vécu par un client en interaction avec l’offre
d’une entreprise (Carù
et Cova, 2006a). Dans un contexte où le consommateur cherche à vivre
intensément sa vie, et en faisant le lien avec la tendance d’instantanéité (très en vogue ces temps-ci), cet
outil du marketing se trouve au cœur des stratégies de développement des marques. Aaker (1996) va
jusqu’à définir la marque comme une expérience de consommation et le souvenir laissé dans la mémoire
du client.
Concrètement, il faut que les entreprises arrivent à multiplier les points de contact entre le
consommateur et la marque. Plus encore, il faut mettre en place des stimuli qui permettent d’attirer le
client et à susciter son intérêt à expérimenter l’univers de la marque. En stimulant de façon
polysensorielle les sens de l’individu, la marque tente de développer une approche relationnelle envers le
consommateur. L’expérience devient comme un moyen permettant le passage d’une approche dyadique,
plutôt transactionnelle, à une approche relationnelle de la marque envers le consommateur, envisagé sur
le long terme. (Breda, 2008 ; Heilbrunn, 2006).
Cet intérêt envers ce concept d’expérience est intimement lié à l’évolution de l’acte de consommation
dans nos sociétés et particulièrement au sens que les consommateurs lui confèrent. Holbrook et
Hirschman (1982) soulignent dans ce sens: «This experiential perspective is phenomenological in spirit
and regards consumption as a primarily subjective state of consciousness with a variety of symbolic
meanings, hedonic responses, and esthetic criteria» (p.132). En fait, l’acte de consommation va, pour
beaucoup de consommateurs, au-delà de la simple notion d’utilité associé à un comportement basé sur la
Running Head: LES LEVIERS DE L’EXPERIENCE DE MARQUE
recherche de l’aspect fonctionnel et reposant sur des critères rationnels pour embrasser d’autres objectifs
tels que le plaisir, la socialisation et la construction identitaire (Firat et Venkatesh, 1995; Parissier, 2008).
Ces objectifs sont particulièrement présents dans l’industrie de la mode dont les produits et autres
accessoires traduisent de façon importante la personnalité des consommateurs et concourent à exprimer
l’image, souvent liée aux attentes de la société, qu’ils veulent véhiculer autour d’eux. Navarri (2008 ; p.
100) affirme notamment qu’à l’adolescence, les marques deviennent des «outils transitionnels». Ainsi
vivre l’expérience de marque fait partie de ce processus de construction de soi. Toutefois, les entreprises
doivent faire attention car cette influence peut être considérée comme néfaste ou négative comme peuvent
l’être des efforts de communication véhiculant l’hypersexualisation ou l’apologie de la maigreur. In Fine,
dans l’industrie de la mode, plus que d’ailleurs, la connexion émotionnelle qui relie la marque à l’individu
est essentielle (Breda, 2008).
Les mercaticiens doivent dans ce contexte intégrer les attentes plurielles des consommateurs pour
leur offrir des environnements favorisant une expérience de marque forte et positive tout en essayant de
s’assurer d’une éthique irréprochable. Plus encore, dans un contexte où le consommateur est inondé de
messages de toutes sortes, il faut tenter de le surprendre, susciter son intérêt et idéalement l’impliquer
dans la coproduction de cette expérience. Carù et Cova (2006b) nous donne dans ce qui suit quelques
pistes pour y arriver :
Il s'agit pour une entreprise de construire un contexte expérientiel apte à favoriser l'immersion du
consommateur de manière a ce que celui-ci vive une expérience subjective positive… En effet,
l'entreprise n'offre pas des expériences contrairement a ce qui a pu être avance au travers de l'idée «
d'économie de l'expérience ». L'expérience est un épisode subjectif vécu par le client en interaction
avec l'offre de l'entreprise. L'entreprise peut donc offrir au maximum des produits et des contextes
expérientiels que le consommateur mobilisera à sa façon pour (co)produire son expérience. On entend
généralement par contexte expérientiel, un assemblage de stimulus (produits) et de stimuli
(environnement, activités) propre à faire advenir l'expérience. Une cuisine, une recette, des ingrédients
Running Head: LES LEVIERS DE L’EXPERIENCE DE MARQUE
qui embaument la cuisine, un couple d'amis... et voici un contexte propre à faire advenir une
expérience culinaire. (p. 44)
Il faut comprendre qu’aujourd’hui, il est largement admis que la différenciation ne se fait pas
uniquement au niveau du produit. Générer des expériences de marque positives implique d’y intégrer
différentes facettes de l’offre de l’entreprise et notamment : le service avant, pendant et après vente, le
marketing, le packaging, la facilité d’utilisation et d’entretien ainsi que l’environnement de vente
physique comme l’odeur, les cabines d’essayage, la musique, les petites intentions, etc.
Certes, le défi est de taille dans un marché aussi concurrentiel, mais cet enjeu est primordial.
Dans une étude réalisée par le cabinet KP/AM (Carteron, 2013), on note que sur 1 000 personnes
interrogées sur leur expérience la plus positive avec une marque, la relation client est citée dans plus de
50 % des cas, devant la bonne affaire (16 %) et la qualité (14 %). Plus encore, Bonan (2011) souligne,
étude à l’appui, que les entreprises qui parviennent à créer un attachement fort avec leurs clients, à travers
une expérience de marque à la fois alignée sur sa communication et fortement distinctive, génère de
bonnes performances, notamment financière. Dans ce qui suit nous proposons les principales alternatives
que les entreprises peuvent mobiliser pour générer des expériences de marque et du coup développer,
renouveler et perpétuer leur Branding. Il s’agit des communautés de marques et les notions
d’ambassadeurs ou connecteurs, le storytelling et l’influence des points de ventes physiques.
4. Les leviers de l’expérience de marque
4.1. Les communautés de marque
Ces dernières années, aidé par les possibilités offertes par la technologie, le concept de
communauté de marque a pris de l’ampleur et constitue aujourd’hui un outil important à utiliser et
maîtriser. Répondant à un besoin aussi vieux que l’être humain, celui d’appartenir à un groupe et de
socialiser, une communauté de marque peut être définie comme
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Un groupe électif pérenne d’acteurs partageant un système de valeurs, de normes et de représentations
(i.e. une culture) et se reconnaissant des liens d’appartenance de chacun avec chacun et de chacun avec
le tout communautaire sur la base d’un attachement commun à une marque particulière. (Sitz, 2006, P.
118)
L’idée n’est pas nouvelle mais le phénomène prend de l’ampleur car les entreprises veulent
recentrer leurs efforts sur le consommateur, lui-même souvent connecté à un groupe de personnes
partageant des intérêts communs. L’hypothèse est que la force et la dynamique du groupe amplifie
l’expérience de la marque et l’enracine dans un imaginaire collectif. On retrouve cette idée notamment
dans l’analyse approfondie de l’évolution du mode de vie américain par Boorstin (1991) qui note que «les
consommateurs étaient devenus une foule anonyme dont le nombre faisait la force. À présent, on
sollicitait le consommateur non seulement pour qu’il devienne un client mais pour qu’il s’agrège à une
communauté de consommateurs» (p. 977).
L’hypothèse que font les mercaticiens est que cet espace, physique et/ou virtuel que représentent
ces communautés, permet de mettre en relation des personnes partageant des intérêts communs qui vont
échanger sur la marque et ses produits, vivre l’expérience de la marque, souvent lié au plaisir de
consommer ensemble entre passionnés tout en amenant du feedback à l’entreprise. Différentes activités
sont généralement organisées dans le but de développer les liens avec la marque. Ce type de pratiques
renforce le sentiment d’attachement à la marque, la dissémination des connaissances sur elle et
idéalement la fidélité (Kotler, Keller, Manceau et Dubois, 2009). Il s’agit d’utiliser l’interaction entre les
consommateurs pour renforcer l’attachement, à la fois fonctionnel et émotionnel, à la marque, les faire
contribuer à l’évolution de l’offre et à sa valorisation à l’aide de systèmes de recommandations et à
répondre à un besoin de socialisation évident. Changer de marque ne revient pas seulement à s’adapter à
un autre produit mais surtout à renoncer à ces liens sociaux (Bascoul et Kaplan, 2010).
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Étroitement lié à cette pratique, le développement des ambassadeurs de marque. Prenant racine
dans l’influence largement reconnue des groupes de références et particulièrement les groupes
d’aspiration, l’idée est de faire appel à des personnes «ordinaires» mais inspirantes pour jouer le rôle de
porte-parole d’une marque. Le caractère «ordinaire» permet d’amener au devant de la scène les aspects
de proximité et de reconnaissance qui peuvent contraster et en même temps remédier à l’image surfaite,
voire fabriquée des porte-paroles connues. Ces ambassadeurs, font le lien entre les consommateurs,
actuels ou potentiels et la marque, et servent de véhicule pour faire passer des messages et susciter la
connaissance, la préférence, l’achat, l’implication, et l’enchantement. Le but ultime est de générer et gérer
des conversations autour de la marque qui seraient amplifiées par un bouche à oreille positif, outil ultime
dans le coffre à outil du mercaticien.
Evidemment, aujourd’hui le rôle de ces ambassadeurs est profondément influencé par les
possibilités offertes par les nouvelles technologies et particulièrement les réseaux sociaux. Leurs
présences se manifestent à travers différentes activités mais également différents réseaux permettant de
relayer plus facilement les messages et en même temps élargir le bassin de consommateurs. La
concurrence est rude aujourd’hui et les entreprises tentent par tous les moyens de se constituer un capital
de marque important et donc de susciter une certaine fidélité. L’enjeu est de taille pour les organisations
puisque selon le cabinet Kuczmarski & Associates (www.cpvinc.com) la loyauté envers des marques
influence 70 % de toutes les décisions d’achat. Plus encore ces fidèles consommateurs sont prêts à payer
en moyenne une prime de 20 % pour leurs marques de prédilection. Ainsi plusieurs marques ont investies
depuis quelques temps dans cet outil et notamment celles liés au monde du sport et du plein air comme
Oakley, Nike et Lululemon.
Ces stratégies d’utiliser des ambassadeurs de marques et plus généralement de développer des
communautés de marques semblent s’adapter aux comportements actuels des consommateurs qui
accordent de plus en plus de poids et de confiance aux recommandations de leur entourage (famille, amis,
collègue, connaissance et même des inconnus) au détriment des messages commerciaux souvent critiqués
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ou remis en question à cause de leurs visées mercantiles mais surtout des méthodes et arguments adoptés
pour pousser à l’achat. Pour appuyer cette observation, soulignons que 92 % des consommateurs font
confiance aux recommandations provenant de leurs connaissances, contre 41 % envers les publicités liées
aux moteurs de recherches et 33 % pour les publicités sous forme de bannières sur les sites Internet
(Nielsen, 2009).
Proche de ce concept d’ambassadeurs, celui de connecteurs qui se trouve à la base du marketing
virale. Ces connecteurs sont définis comme «des personnes qui possèdent beaucoup d’amis et de
connaissances dans différents milieux. Ce sont des gens faciles à rejoindre en raison de leurs nombreux
réseaux sociaux et qui servent de lien entre diverses personnes, souvent de façon spontanée» (Nantel et
St-Onge, 2006 ; p. 6).
En résumé, la mise en place de communauté de marque et le recrutement d’Ambassadeurs
capables de représenter la marque et de susciter autour d’elle des conversations positives et constructives
devient une voie des plus incontournables en raison de ce qu’elles génèrent comme apports positifs et
surtout grâce aux possibilités offertes par les différentes technologies actuelles.
L’objectif
est de
rejoindre la clientèle, faire relayer son message par des consommateurs convaincus, tisser des liens et les
entretenir dans le temps dans le but de faire parler de la marque, créer un certain buzz autour et initier du
bouche à oreille positif. Dans ce sens, Il faut considérer ces communautés comme un investissement et
non comme une dépense de plus. Les propos de Cova et Carrere (2002, p. 11) illustrent justement
l’essence même de cette évolution dans le marketing
On voit de plus en plus apparaître un nouveau type d’acteur intermédiaire de niveau micro-social, la
communauté ou la tribu de consommateurs, situé entre le niveau individuel du consommateur pris
individuellement et le niveau macro social du segment ou de la classe. Cet acteur intermédiaire a
acquis un pouvoir de mobilisation, d’expertise et d’action collective qui lui permet d’être acteur sur la
scène publique au même titre que les producteurs et les distributeurs. Il demande au-delà à l’ensemble
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de l’entreprise de le prendre en compte dans une démarche capable de lui faire de la place dans
l’élaboration, la production et la distribution de l’offre comme dans la gestion de la marque.
Nous nous intéressons à présent au storytelling, deuxième levier permettant de faire vivre au
consommateur l’expérience de marque.
4.2 Le storytelling
Il s’agit d’une technique de communication basée sur le récit. Raconter des histoires vise à utiliser
la connexion émotionnelle des histoires au service de l’entreprise (Durant, 2011). Selon Simmons (2001)
le storytelling consiste à faire émerger au sein des organisations des histoires à fort pouvoir de séduction
et de conviction.Il s’agit en fait d’une technique vieille comme le temps qui prend la forme de contes
exprimés et partagés entre un groupe de personnes. Son appropriation au service du marketing aurait
débuté aux États-Unis autour des années 1920 (Meuleman, 2009) et s’est accentuée grâce aux possibilités
offerts par toutes les formes de nouveaux médias qui permettent de mieux exploiter la structure narrative
du message et surtout de toucher une plus grande audience. Cependant, qu’est ce qui explique le succès
du storytelling et pourquoi il s’agit aujourd’hui d’une compétence importante à maîtriser. Meuleman
(2009) explique l’efficacité de cette technique par les liens que nous entretenons avec les récits, et ce
depuis notre plus jeune âge. Il souligne dans ce sens :
Notre premier rapport au monde passe ainsi par le récit. L’enfant peut comprendre les objets, les
situations et les évènements grâce à la traduction que ses parents ou ses grands parents ont réalisée
pour lui. Dès lors, l’histoire va structurer pour toujours notre approche et surtout notre
compréhension de notre environnement. (p. 28)
Pour cet auteur «les histoires sont le plus vieux canevas de compréhension de l’être humain.» (p.
29). Le lien avec le récit existe donc, reste aux entreprises de savoir comment construire leur message et
le relayer à travers les bons canaux. Ce qui semble certain c’est que l’émotion est au cœur de cette
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relation avec l’auditoire. En effet, l’émotion rend ce dernier plus réceptif et une fois que l’on a attiré
l’attention du récepteur on peut plus facilement passer notre message. Toutefois, l’émotion ne doit pas
remplacer la raison, les deux ingrédients sont importants et en même temps complémentaires. Durant
(2011) invite les mercaticiens à user de l’émotion avant la raison. Plus encore, pour assoir la notoriété
d’une marque et arriver à offrir une expérience de marque positive, il faut établir des liens forts avec les
parties prenantes et particulièrement avec le client. Il faut développer un lien de confiance et selon
Simmons (2001) cela se fait à travers les histoires qu’on raconte :
Story is your path to creating faith. Telling a meaningful story means inspiring your listeners to reach
the same conclusions you have reached and decide for themselves to believe what you say and what
you want them to do. People value their own conclusions more highly than yours (p. 3)
Notons que cet outil est particulièrement adapté à l’industrie de la mode où, comme nous l’avons
précisé plus haut, l’acte d’achat est en grand partie un acte émotif. C’est pour cette raison que la plupart
des maisons de luxe ainsi que les marques de sport tentent d’emprunter cette voie. Le luxe en particulier
par ses spécificités est un terrain fertile pour ce type d’approche notamment en raison de l’importance de
l’histoire, de la présence souvent incontournable et intrigante du fondateur et des notions de rêve et de
beauté associées à ce type de produits. Blancherie et Dangel (2010, p. 6) soulignent dans ce sens que «le
luxe construit un monde avec son verbe, il peuple ce monde d'œuvres, d'objets magiques, de lieux
phénoménaux, de capteurs des sens et d'héritiers du sens. Il vous fait sujet et monarque de ce
monde, vous y incarnez son verbe». En s’achetant un produit de luxe, le consommateur achète en même
temps un brin d’histoire et un univers hautement symbolique. Fog, Budtz, Munch et Blanchette (2010, p.
22) expliquent ainsi:
The brand story gradually becomes synonymous with how we define ourselves as individuals, and
products become the symbols that we use to tell the story of ourselves. They help us communicate who
we are. And this is where branding and storytelling form a perfect partnership.
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L’une des parfaites illustrations de l’utilisation du storytelling est celle de l’une des dernières
campagnes de la maison de luxe Cartier. Le court-métrage baptisé l'Odyssée multiplie les références à
l'histoire de Cartier et à ses produits phares. Première compagne institutionnelle depuis une vingtaine
d’années, l’entreprise a voulu renforcer le lien avec les consommateurs en racontant en 3 mn 30 l’histoire
de la marque, une histoire qui s’étale sur 160 ans et jalonnée de succès et d’innovation. Évidement les
symboles abondent dans cet hommage, en commençant par la panthère, emblème de la marque, les lieux
que traversent la panthère ainsi que les couleurs utilisées et les bijoux mis de l’avant pour rappeler que
l’histoire de Cartier se confond avec celle des bijoux de luxe. Accalmée un peu partout, cette campagne a
permis notamment de renforcer le positionnement et la réputation de la marque et participer à assoir
encore plus le mythe l’entourant. Avec ce conte, le consommateur a eu un accès privilégié à la
personnalité de la marque lui permettant du même coup de prendre part en quelque sorte à l’expérience de
la marque20.
L’utilisation de cette technique peut s’avérer en fait un bon outil à exploiter dans une période où le
marché du luxe évolue. L’objectif serait notamment de développer et renforcer des liens avec les
consommateurs et en séduire d’autres, notamment dans de nouveaux territoires du luxe comme en Asie ou
dans les pays du BRIC. Toutefois, cette technique de communication narrative doit être utilisée avec
parcimonie car trop d’utilisation peut tuer une certaine magie et une connotation évènementielle reliée à
ce type de campagne. Plus encore certains critiquent l’objectif de manipulation qui peut être associé à ce
type d’approche. Dans son manifeste très virulent du storytelling, Salmon (2008) parle d’une «arme de
distraction massive» qui tente d’influencer un consommateur, obnubilé par la société de consommation, et
qui vise à standardiser de plus en plus ses réactions en rendant floue la limite entre le réel et la fiction, et
20
Les propos de Bernard Fornas, le PDG de Richemont la société mère de Cartier, illustrent les objectifs et
l’approche de la marque :
Avec ce film, nous avons voulu réaffirmer avec force le mythe Cartier, réaliser une fresque cinématographique
qui met au premier plan son histoire, ses valeurs de créativité, d'élégance et de raffinement, ses inspirations, sa
dimension artistique et universelle...Nous voulons montrer que cette maison est à l'opposé de la mode, éphémère.
Nous nous situons du côté de l'intemporel…C'est une campagne parapluie sur la marque, destinée à créer du rêve
(Letessier, 2012).
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entre le vrai et le faux. Sans être aussi critique envers le storytelling, Neu (2011) y va quand même d’une
mise en garde : «sa pertinence, parfois discutable, ne devient pourtant pleinement effective que dans des
conditions précises d’application : en user sans en abuser, et sans jamais laisser de côté l’innovation et le
réel, eux aussi gages de légitimité et de savoir-faire.»
En résumé, le storytelling est aujourd’hui un ingrédient très recherché pour développer une
marque et nourrir son Branding. En effet, à partir du moment où nous admettons que la marque
s’apparente à une représentation collective qui ne prend son sens qu’à travers les interprétations qui lui
sont données et les associations qu’elle suscite (Sitz, 2006), nous pouvons comprendre l’intérêt de cette
technique de communication et son rôle comme véhicule de message combinant des éléments émotifs
mais aussi rationnels.
Après les communautés de marque et le storytelling, nous présentons dans ce qui suit
l’importance de l’environnement de vente comme un autre levier de l’expérience de marque.
4.3. Le rôle des environnements de vente
L’une des stratégies que les marques utilisent pour faire vivre à leurs clients l’expérience de la
marque est sans contredit l’investissement dans les environnements de vente. Il s’agit d’un élément
critique car il constitue le point de rencontre le plus important à date entre le consommateur et la marque.
Depuis l’article fondateur de Kotler (1973) où il évoque l’influence positive des environnements de vente
comme outil marketing sur les probabilités d’achat, l’intérêt envers l’espace commercial dans lequel les
produits sont exposés et les clients servis ne s’essouffle pas. Aujourd’hui toutes les composantes d’un
environnement de vente concourent à véhiculer l’image de la marque. Que se soit à travers les senteurs,
l’aménagement des espaces, les couleurs utilisées, la qualité des matériaux et des meubles choisis, la
composante sonore, les caractéristiques des salles d’essayage, etc. Tous ces éléments participent à créer
une expérience de magasinage. Le but est d’enchanter le client de façon qu’il achète plus, qu’il devient
Running Head: LES LEVIERS DE L’EXPERIENCE DE MARQUE
moins sensible au prix, qu’il augmente ses fréquences de visites et qu’il ramène d’autres connaissances
au magasin. Dans la littérature, et en dépit des différences de vocabulaires, de nombreuses études
confirment le lien positif entre l’image du magasin ou l’atmosphère du point de vente et le capital d’une
marque qui souvent est source de fidélité et donc de ventes plus importantes (Kaswengi, 2013 ; Parsons,
2011 ; Soars, 2009 ; Michon et al., 2008 ; Ailawadi et Keller, 2004 ; Lemoine, 2003 ; Yoo, Donthu et
Lee, 2000) ; d’où l’intérêt de développer cet aspect du marketing. Toutefois, les mercaticiens doivent être
conscients que l’image du magasin demeure une question de perception. Bezes (2013, p. 94) souligne
dans ce sens :
Comme toute image, elle constitue une représentation subjective et réductrice. Composée
d’éléments tangibles et intangibles, rationnels et émotionnels, elle s’articule autour d’une
communauté de perceptions, plus ou moins large et plus ou moins partagée par les différentes
parties prenantes (clients, personnel…).
Les entreprises doivent s’assurer donc que cette image du point de vente correspond à celle qu’elles
désirent véhiculer et surtout qu’elle soit cohérente avec l’image de marque. L’expérience vécue par un
client doit donc se fondre dans l’image souhaitée et non la déformer (Parissier, 2008). Bref, toutes les
composantes de cet environnement devraient concourir à renforcer cette image d’autant plus que Bell
(1999) estime que le choix du lieu d’achat précède généralement celui du produit ou de la marque. Les
consommateurs s’attendent à connaître une expérience d’achat à valeur ajoutée, et ce, tant au point de vue
du plaisir éprouvé qu’au point de vue du temps gagné. (Turley et Chebat, 2001)
Basé sur une triple interaction entre le client, le produit et le contexte (Bouchet, 2004) (voir figure
suivante), le point de vente devient donc «un puissant vecteur de communication, proposant aussi bien
des informations de nature factuelle et technique, que des stimulations sensorielles porteuses de
significations multiples. La frontière entre achat et consommation est aussi remise en cause». (Filser,
Fulconis et Messeghem, 2009; p. 16), soirée VIP avec stylistes, rabais spéciaux, vin et fromage dans une
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ambiance feutrée et glamour animé par un Dj, défilés de mode, cours de yoga sur place, des technologies
de toutes sortes comme des miroirs intelligeant…tous ces éléments font désormais parties des stratégies
des marques.
Contexte
expérience de
magasinage:
un vécu personnel et
subjectif, résultant de
l’interaction avec
différents stimuli,
tangibles et intangibles
et chargé d’aspects
symboliques, émotifs
et hédonistes.
Consommateur
Objet (produit ou
service)
Figure 2 : les trois éléments de l’expérience de magasinage (adapté de Bouchet, 2004)
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Ainsi, les spécialistes du marketing doivent créer et gérer les conditions nécessaires à la
production voire à la coproduction de l’expérience. Nous croyons dans ce sens que malgré les énormes
changements qui touchent le commerce de détail traditionnel, et particulièrement les possibilités offertes
par la technologie, les magasins physiques sont là pour rester. Toutefois, pour assurer leur survie, elles
doivent repenser leur rôle. De plus, le shopping demeure une activité sociale, il faudra donc trouver des
façons de rendre cette activité spéciale, voire mémorable développant ou renforçant du même coup
l’attachement à la marque. Dax Dasilva, un spécialiste du commerce du détail, explique dans ce sens que
l’histoire d’une marque est mieux racontée dans un environnement en trois dimensions que sur un écran et
que, pour cette raison notamment, les magasins sont plus pertinents que jamais (Fournier, 2013).
Conséquence logique de l’importance de cette expérience vécue en magasin, nous assistons
depuis quelques années au développement du concept de flagship store (qu’on peut traduire littéralement
par vaisseau amiral) et qui s’apparente à de véritables temples dédiés à l’expérience client. Associé
souvent aux marques du luxe, il est utilisé de plus en plus par d’autres marques fortes qui ciblent d’autres
segments comme le fast fashion ou d’autres domaines comme l’illustre l’ouverture de flagships en Inde
par la chaîne de café Starbucks. Le flagship store peut être défini comme un espace commercial
exceptionnel, de part ses spécificités, comme la qualité de son
architecture, son emplacement, sa
superficie et / ou les innovations qu’il intègre, détenu par l’entreprise mère, dédié généralement à une
seule marque bien établie et dont l’objectif principal est de développer ou renforcer l’image de marque
bien plus que simplement vendre des produits et services (Kozinets et al., 2002).
Aujourd’hui, on visite le Niketown de New York ou le nouveau flagship de Burberry à Londres
comme on visite des musées ou autres attractions touristiques, cela crée de l’engouement, du buzz,
notamment à travers les réseaux sociaux et se ponctue par l’achat de produits considérés par les visiteurs
comme le souvenir de leur passage dans cet environnement enchanteur. L’enjeu est de tisser des liens,
produire des souvenirs marquants, rapprocher le consommateur de la marque, mais aussi lui permettre de
prendre part à l’expérience de la marque et de s’imprégner de ses symboliques. Aidé par les innombrables
Running Head: LES LEVIERS DE L’EXPERIENCE DE MARQUE
possibilités offertes par la technologie, le magasin amiral n’est donc pas un phénomène marginal de
communication. En faisant référence au concept du réenchantement des moyens de consommation
(Ritzer, 1999), Filser (2001, p. 3-4), souligne que
Le point de vente peut contribuer, grâce à la théâtralisation de son offre, à procurer au consommateur
des gratifications hédonistes qui lui permettent d’échapper à la monotonie d’une offre rationnalisée à
l’extrême…le consommateur post-moderne trouvera au contraire dans cette hyperréalité construite par
le point de vente une source intrinsèque de valeur de l’acte de magasinage: la consommation du lieu de
vente devient plus importante que les produits qui y sont proposés.
La mode étant depuis toujours imprégnée de rêve, d’imaginaire fertile et de beauté, ces
environnements de vente nouveau genre semblent être des espaces tout désignés pour accentuer cette
symbolique tout en développant l’image de marque. L’objectif est donc de créer des expériences de
marque mémorables, voire spectaculaires (Kent et Brown, 2009). Visité autant que la tour Eiffel, le
flagship de Séphora ayant pignon sur rue sur les Champs-Élysées depuis 1996, en est une belle illustration
(Chahine, 2012). S’étendant sur 12000 m2, ce temple de la beauté appartenant à LVMH, offre à ses
clients quelque 14 000 références, un bar à sourcils, une école de maquillage et un coin coiffure. Quand
au nouveau magasin Burberry, situé sur Regent street à Londres et réparti sur quatre étages, il présente
l’archétype de la nouvelle génération de flagship baigné dans un environnement digital permettant un
renforcement des stratégies marketing véhiculées par d’autres dispositifs.
Ainsi, avec le temps, il semble que ce concept de magasin phare, devient un maillon essentiel
dans les stratégies marketing d’une entreprise et dans la proposition de valeur qu’elle offre sur le marché.
Aujourd’hui, les objectifs derrière l’implantation de ces magasins sont multiples et surtout elle présente
des avantages aussi bien pour l’entreprise que pour le consommateur. Etudiant, entre autres, les
motivations derrière le choix de tels magasins, Moore, Doherty et Doyle (2010 ; p. 153) soulignent dans
ce sens :
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For new and established customers, the flagship store becomes, according to one company
[interviewed], “the home of the brand and is the place where they return so as to be updated and
inspired once again”. For other customers, the visit to the flagship store is a vivid and pleasant
memory that sustains their interest and engagement with the brand through time. For these customers,
it was claimed that a visit to the flagship store encourages and sustains future purchasing through
department store concessions and third party stockists.
5. Illustration d’une utilisation simultanée et cohérente de ces trois leviers : le cas du groupe
Dynamite:
Nous avons mentionné plus haut qu’une des clés pour susciter l’intérêt des consommateurs et
développer avec eux un lien affectif tout en assoyant un positionnement clair sur le marché serait de
mettre en place une expérience de marque à la fois différente et attractive. Cette expérience doit être
conjuguée à travers différents points de contact ou ce que nous avons appelé des leviers qui peuvent et
doivent être utilisé de façon simultanée et surtout cohérente. Afin d’illustrer cette approche, nous
présentons le cas du groupe Dynamite Inc., un des leaders canadiens de vêtements pour femmes. Ce que
nous voulons montrer c’est comment l’entreprise arrive à travers différents leviers à offrir à ses clientes
une expérience de marque unique. La figure suivante en présente les ingrédients.
Running Head: LES LEVIERS DE L’EXPERIENCE DE MARQUE
Environneme
nt de vente
Storytelling
Expérience de marque
autour de l’univers de
chaque muse (cliente
type)
Réseaux
sociaux
Figure 3 : les leviers de l’expérience de marque de Dynamite
D’abord Groupe Dynamite 21 est une entreprise montréalaise opérant deux bannières : Garage et
Dynamite. Appuyée par une équipe de gestion de classe mondiale et par 5000 employés, l’entreprise
contrôle plus de 300 magasins au Canada et à l’étranger. Elle opte pour une stratégie d’intégration
verticale dans la mesure où elle crée, commercialise et distribue plusieurs collections par année à partir de
ses bureaux de Montréal. Le point tournant dans l’histoire de cette compagnie et surtout au niveau de son
positionnement remonte à 2003 quand l’entreprise décide de repositionner ses deux marques et de les
différencier de façon importante. Pour y arriver, elle a eu l’idée d’identifier clairement le profil type de la
consommatrice de chacune des bannières et de développer des stratégies et des outils marketing qui
collent parfaitement à la personnalité de chacune de ces muses. Dans le cas de la bannière Garage par
exemple, la muse, âgée de 16 ans, s’appelle Alexia, elle est blonde aux yeux bleus. Elle a beaucoup
d’amis, aime s’amuser, la musique a une place importante dans sa vie et est inspirée par les tendances.
Elle habite encore chez ses parents et a le béguin pour Josh, un gars populaire de son école. Voici
comment le président du conseil d’administration de l’entreprise décrit le caractère stratégique de ce
profil :
21
http://groupedynamite.com/
Running Head: LES LEVIERS DE L’EXPERIENCE DE MARQUE
At Garage's Montreal-based parent, Groupe Dynamite Inc., employees obsess over the thoughts and
desires of this archetypal customer. Everything in the store, from Josh's scent to each song played, is
carefully selected to suit the imaginary Alexia. "If you took a 16-year-old and her friends and said,
'Here's $10,000, go open your own store,' this is what you'd expect to see (National Post, 2007).
L’objectif de la compagnie est de raconter des histoires qui viennent interpeller la clientèle cible
qui va idéalement se reconnaître dans différents éléments mis de l’avant. Cependant pour raconter des
histoires qui auraient de l’impact il faut connaître la clientèle et en quelque sorte lui donner de ce qu’elle a
envie de voir et d’entendre. A partir de là, l’entreprise s’est donné les moyens de connaître en profondeur
sa clientèle grâce notamment aux nombreux focus groupes, sondages et autres commentaires sur les
réseaux sociaux comme le montre cet extrait :
Le Groupe Dynamite ne ménage aucun effort pour s’assurer que la déception n’est jamais au rendezvous. Tous les mercredis, le siège social grouille d’adolescentes qui participent à des groupes de
discussion, les fameux « focus groups ». L’entreprise mène également 10 000 sondages par mois pour
connaître leurs commentaires sur leur expérience en magasin. Enfin, Dynamite utilise aussi les réseaux
sociaux comme Facebook pour joindre les Alexia de ce monde [La présidente de Dynamite explique
dans ce sens] : « Il faut entrer dans leur vie. Voilà pourquoi on utilise Facebook. On veut savoir ce
qu’elles font, ce qu’elles regardent à la télévision, ce qu’elles écoutent comme musique» (Boisvert,
2010, p. 32).
Cette connaissance approfondie de la clientèle qui alimente le profil et les comportements de
leurs muses est donc au cœur de l’expérience de marque que Dynamite veut offrir. Ainsi «The brand’s
core strength is rooted in a solid understanding of its customer and the ability to translate leading edge
designs and innovative ideas into accessible fashions and a unique shopping experience that draws its
inspiration from our two respective muses: ‘’Rachel’’ and ‘’Alexia’’» (Artica, 2012).
Running Head: LES LEVIERS DE L’EXPERIENCE DE MARQUE
La dirigeante de l’entreprise décortique dans ce qui suit sa recette pour ce qui est de la production de cette
expérience :
Il faut raconter une histoire. Il faut que nos clientes se reconnaissent lorsqu’elles entrent dans nos
magasins. Tout est pensé en fonction de ça. La disposition des vêtements, celle des meubles et
accessoires, même le niveau de décibels de la musique. C’est pourquoi d’ailleurs, tous nos magasins
sont exactement les mêmes. Un magasin Garage à Montréal est identique à celui de Toronto.
La stratégie est assez simple : cibler un profil particulier et bâtir toutes les stratégies marketing
autour de ce profil. Par exemple, les magasins Garage deviennent comme un refuge pour la cliente cible,
exactement comme sa chambre, un endroit douillet où il fait bon discuter entre amis, écouter de la
musique et essayer des vêtements, tout cela entre des mûrs colorés et tapissés d’affiches présentant les
différents visages d’Alexia. L’entreprise a donc investi énormément d’argent pour offrir une expérience
de magasinage mémorable. Progressivement les boutiques ont changé de visage pour épouser les traits et
les comportements des muses et la superficie de la plupart des magasins est passée d’environ 1000 à
4000 pieds carrés (Froment, 2010). Parallèlement à ces efforts, l’entreprise à inauguré en 2012, son
magasin phare (flagship store) sur la rue Sainte-Catherine à côté des Zara, H&M et autres Forever 21,
une sorte de temple de la marque où on vient s’inspirer, consommer et s’imprégner de l’univers de la
marque distillé à travers prés de 12700 pieds carrés. Comme nous l’avons mentionné plus haut, ces
espaces deviennent un ingrédient essentiel de l’expérience de la marque. D’ailleurs, ce magasin a été
récompensé par le premier prix du International Council of Shopping Centers (ICSC) dans la catégorie
design de magasin de détail en soulignant que le groupe dynamite «created a store that not only built its
brand but elevated the shopping experience through a compelling fashion assortment» (www.icsc.org).
Par ailleurs, pour amener les clientes aux magasins, il faut d’abord les informer, développer
l’image de la marque et communiquer son positionnement. C’est dans cette perspective que l’entreprise
investit énormément de ressources dans le commerce électronique et particulièrement dans les réseaux
Running Head: LES LEVIERS DE L’EXPERIENCE DE MARQUE
sociaux. Ces outils servant aussi à raconter des histoires inspirées des héroïnes Alexia et Rachel, susciter
des interactions et atteindre des objectifs cognitifs (notoriété), affectifs (attachement voire fidélisation) et
comportementaux (essai et achat).
Le fait d’être présent de façon efficace et active sur les réseaux sociaux permet également de
développer une communauté de consommateurs partageant des points communs, qui servirait d’interface
pour communiquer entre eux mais aussi avec l’entreprise avec tous les avantages que nous avons
mentionné plus haut. Une autre illustration des possibilités offertes par une utilisation simultanée et
cohérente de différents leviers est l’utilisation des vitrines des boutiques pour intégrer des codes 2D.
Comme le précise la directrice marketing de Dynamite « ça permet à la cliente qui passe devant le
magasin de vivre la marque, de vivre une expérience plus poussée... Pour nous, c'est une façon d'entrer en
contact avec nos clientes» (Fournier, 2011). A partir de là, l’entreprise peut opter pour des objectifs précis
en choisissant les liens qu’elle veut activer. Des objectifs qui visent essentiellement la possibilité de
donner aux consommatrices un accès privilégié à l’univers de la marque. L’entreprise a compris que face
à une génération de plus en plus connectée, il faut l’être également en accompagnant les clients potentiels
tout au long du processus d’achat. Un processus qui devrait débuter bien avant l’acte d’achat avec des
suggestions, des informations, des liens et des concours et bien après avec la possibilité de donner du
feedback et de partager ses trouvailles. Dynamite semble donc réussir à mobiliser différents outils pour le
faire comme l’explique l’extrait suivant :
To channel these two characters [Alexia and Rachel]; Groupe Dynamite uses both old and new
methods. Traditional methods include assembling focus groups to look at samples of new styles and
vote them up or down. Newer methods (especially for Alexia) include social media–based contests to
design t-shirt graphics, create videos or answer open-ended, thought-provoking questions.
Pour finir il faut savoir que cette utilisation simultanée et cohérente de ces leviers, combinée à des
processus d’affaires efficaces et appuyée par des technologies à la fine pointe, semble donner des
Running Head: LES LEVIERS DE L’EXPERIENCE DE MARQUE
résultats. Ainsi, parallèlement à une expansion internationale réussie, en 2011, et selon un sondage réalisé
par Léger Marketing, l’entreprise a classé ses boutiques dans le top 10 des entreprises de vêtements en
termes d’expérience de magasinage (Harris, 2012).
Conclusion
Depuis l’amélioration substantielle du revenu par ménage, la présence de plus en plus importante
et influente de la femme sur le marché du travail et l’évolution de nos sociétés modernes, nous sommes
passés d’un marketing de besoins à un marketing de commodités et de désirs. À partir de là, les outils des
mercaticiens ont changé et certaines stratégies, à l’instar de développement des marques, deviennent
centrales, aidés par les innombrables possibilités offertes par les nouvelles technologies de l’information.
C’est dans ce contexte, que nous avons tenté de présenter trois leviers principaux de l’expérience que les
marques peuvent offrir à leur clientèle. Le point commun avec ces changements c’est de mettre le client
au centre des préoccupations en lui donnant la possibilité d’être une partie prenante, des fois active, dans
le développement d’une marque.
Par ailleurs, le défi central auquel les entreprises, et spécialement celles œuvrant dans le domaine
de la mode, seront confrontées est celui d’accepter que le consommateur détienne, avec ces outils, de plus
en plus de pouvoir, particulièrement à mesure que les entreprises déploient leurs stratégies à travers les
réseaux sociaux. À partir de là, la communication, et par conséquent le développement des marques,
passera d’une relation unidirectionnelle: entreprise-consommateur vers un lien relationnel qui va dans les
deux sens qui amène, certes des retombées positives, mais également certains inconvénients. Le plus
important, c’est la possibilité d’une perte de contrôle sur son message et sa communication en général.
Toutefois, les gestionnaires savent qu’en générale toute décision d’affaires amène sont lot d’avantages
mais aussi d’inconvénients et il sera intéressant de suivre de prés les comportements que les entreprises
sont en train d’adopter dans une ère où l’expérience de marque se conjugue à travers plusieurs
Running Head: LES LEVIERS DE L’EXPERIENCE DE MARQUE
plateformes et de plus en plus à travers les médias numériques. Ces médias deviennent du coup un autre
levier incontournable pour offrir l’expérience de marque.
Running Head: LES LEVIERS DE L’EXPERIENCE DE MARQUE
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Running Head: THE EFFECT OF FAIRNESS AND TRANSPARENCY IN COUPON DESIGN
The Effect of Fairness and Transparency in Coupon Design
Khalil Rohani, Ryerson University, Canada
Vinay Kanetka, University of Guelph, Canada
Joe Barth, University of Guelph, Canada
Lefa Teng, University of Guelph, Canada
Running Head: THE EFFECT OF FAIRNESS AND TRANSPARENCY IN COUPON DESIGN
Introduction
Businesses in the United States issued 311 billion coupons in 2009 and 332 billion in 2010 and
these coupons resulted in $ 3.7 billion in savings for consumers (NCH Marketing Services, Inc., 2011a).
A similar report puts the coupon distribution at 376 billion for year 2010 slightly higher and consumers
redeemed 3.3 billion of these coupons. Although these figures indicate that only 0.9% percent of
distributed coupons were redeemed, this rate is considered the highest usage since tracking trends began
in 1988 (Inmar, 2010). In the first half of 2011, there was an increase of 2.9% in coupon usage
(Marketing Services, Inc., 2011b), and probably the modest increase in coupon usage may be due to
recent difficult economic times in the US. However, in general coupon redemption rate is very low at less
than 1 %. Families with annual income of over $100, 000 were the main drivers of coupon growth and
while other ethnic group redeem coupons, Caucasian in the US were by far had the largest use of coupons
at 75%. Young people have been found to be the least interested and inactive to sales promotion efforts
(Te’eni-Harari, 2008). Based on these numbers, there is still a lot of work to be done to encourage
shoppers to use coupons. Coupons redemption benefits manufacturer, retailers, and consumers alike. For
example, in case of manufacturers, couponing provide a direct purchase incentives to consumers, attract
new buyers, reward loyal brand users, encourage repeat purchase (build brand loyalty), facilitate crossproduct trial, build retailer relationship (gain shelf space), gain additional advertising exposure, contribute
to a positive brand image. When retailers accept coupons from consumers, it is not just about giving a
discount to consumers. Couponing helps retailers to attract high consumption consumers to the store,
support product movement off shelves, provides consumers with manufacturer sponsored incentives, and
cushions price increases. Consumers are among the most to benefit from coupons. These benefits include
saving money, increase purchasing power, feeling connected to favoured brands, learning about new
products/services, reduce risk of trying new products/brands, and experience the excitement of “hunting”
for new bargains (Marketing Services, Inc., 2011b).
Coupons continue to be the most important kind of promotional tool used today and can have a
dramatic impact on the ultimate success of a product; the actual redemption rate does remain low. These
Running Head: THE EFFECT OF FAIRNESS AND TRANSPARENCY IN COUPON DESIGN
benefits reveal that much work needs to be done to raise coupon redemption rate by designing
increasingly effective coupon promotions and investigating factors which affect coupon usage. Although
previous studies of coupons have examined the factors that influence coupon usage behaviour, little work
has been done to investigate the effects of fairness and transparency in varying types of coupon design:
(a) coupons with vague statements (e.g., some restrictions apply) vs. (b) coupons without vague
statements (e.g., this coupon can be only used for donut), (c) coupons with face value in stated dollar
value vs.(d) coupons with face value in percentage off original price, (f) coupons with longer expiry date
vs. (g) coupons with shorter expiry date.
Past research on coupon redemption focused on factors that influence consumers to use coupons
and identifying the characteristics of consumers who are “deal prone” (e.g., Bawa and Shoemaker, 1987a;
Levedahl, 1988; Narasimhan 1984; Teel, Williams, and Bearden 1980). Although these studies have
advanced our understanding of coupon usage behaviour, one common shortcoming is that they have
defined deal proneness by basing it on observed coupon usage without considering the specific type of
coupon available to each consumer (Bawa, Srinivasan, Srivastava, 1997).
Obviously, a consumer’s
coupon usage behaviour depends on his/her desire to use coupons, but it also depends on how appealing a
particular coupon is. Similarly, most of the studies on coupon redemption have looked at the coupon
attributes at the aggregate level and typically have ignored individual level analysis of attributes for a
coupon user. The goal of this research is to show how the design of a coupon affects consumer’s
perception of fairness and transparency and ultimately its usage. For example, a consumer may want to
use a coupon, but will exhibit low coupon uptake if he or she fails to find the coupon attractive in terms
fairness (worth his/her efforts) and transparency (the savings are easy to understand without complicated
mental calculation and vague restrictions compared to clear ones). First time these constructs are
introduced simultaneously in the context of coupon usage study. Similarly, buyers may be more strongly
motivated to use dollar value coupons that provide an explicit savings noted on the coupon by having the
regular price of the product present. For example, when there is $10 off a product, it’s very clear it’s a 10
dollar savings. However, percentage-off coupons usually require additional mental and cognitive effort to
Running Head: THE EFFECT OF FAIRNESS AND TRANSPARENCY IN COUPON DESIGN
reach a conclusion about actual value. For example, When there is 10 % off on coupon, there is need for
some sort of calculation (Coupon percentage-off X product price = Savings). Requiring additional
cognitive efforts on the consumers’ part, especially when the regular price is absent, creates considerable
ambiguity (Yin & Dubinsky, 2004). In a recent study by Xia, Kinney and Monroe (2010), variables such
as non-monetary sacrifice (e.g., effort) are shown to be an important factor in consumers’ perception of
price promotion fairness.
Restrictions on sales promotions such as “some restrictions apply”, “for selected items only” and
“offer expires on (date) are commonly used in most sales promotion offers. A number of explanations
have been forwarded why restrictions are used and they include: (1) expiration dates are used on coupons
to limit their financial liability (Inman and McAlister, 1994; Krishna and Zhang, 1999), (2) expiration
dates could be used to shift the promotional offer to a loss frame which will generate more action on the
part of the consumers (Inman and McAlister, 1994; Spears, 2001), (3) time limits are used to attract
consumers to the brand, while quantity limits are needed to reduce stockpiling (Inman et al., 1997), and
(4) a vague restriction such as while stocks last, does not have an impact on consumers’ perceived savings
(Tan and Chua, 2004). However, the above studies only examined the effects of different restrictions on
consumers’ perceptions of savings. They did not identify factors affecting the perception of consumers in
redeeming coupons. Therefore, this study suggests that consumers’ perception of fairness and
transparency for a coupon promotion may influence their perception and usage of coupon promotion.
This research seeks to contribute to the literature on couponing in four major ways. It extends
previous research by adding two additional constructs, transparency and fairness, and investigating their
effects on coupon redemption; It also provides marketing managers with an effective tool to design their
coupons better through increased capability for predicting consumer response to a coupon campaign
which can be quite cost effective for businesses. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first
research to examine redemption intentions and redemption behaviour regarding coupon usage. Finally,
the study also has implications for policy makers who have a moral responsibility to provide consumers
with accurate regular pricing information and transparency on coupons.
Running Head: THE EFFECT OF FAIRNESS AND TRANSPARENCY IN COUPON DESIGN
Research on coupon use
Coupons are the most studied type of promotion tool and coupon usage dates back to the nineteenth
century (Babakus et al., 1988). There wasn’t much research related to their usage until mid 1960s and
early 1970s (Bonnici, Campbell, Fredenberger, & Hunnicutt, 1997). When Webster (1965) looked at
consumer differences in price sensitivity, he was able to use regression analysis to identify a profile of the
deal-prone consumer. He concluded that the deal-prone consumer is usually a brand switcher, female,
middle-aged, and may work or be in the home (Fortin, 2000). Later, Blattberg et al (1978) used the
household inventory model and cross tabulation to profile the deal-prone as female, not working outside
the home but owning a car and home. Their study also concluded that income when adjusted for
household resources did not have a significant effect whether the consumer was deal prone.
Price discrimination theory of coupon use (Narasimhan, 1984) concludes that coupon use is higher
for householders with a higher level of education, a middle class income, and no children under 18. The
price discrimination theory seeks to classify between price sensitive shoppers and non-price sensitive
shoppers (Chiang, 1996; Narasimhan, 1984). It typically means the more price sensitive shoppers may use
coupons more frequently to reduce prices. There is a wealth of coupon research about coupon use for cost
and utility or benefit perspective (Bawa & Shoemaker, 1987; Narasimhan, 1984). The basic idea is here it
costs consumers (non-monetary sacrifices such as time and effort) to redeem coupons and obviously the
cost of coupons redemption should outweighed by the saving provided by coupons. There is lack of
research on the idea of non monetary sacrifices on the part of consumers especially with coupons that
carry a short expiry date and a low amount. In such cases, consumers may think it is not worth their
efforts to redeem and even worse when a coupon is not granted just because it is expired, it may also
create the feelings of unfairness on the part of consumers.
A positive correlation between coupon usage and large number of purchases was found by Neslin,
Henderson, and Quelch (1985), who suggest that consumers with higher previous purchasing of
discounted brands are more responsive to coupon promotion than those with lower previous purchasing of
Running Head: THE EFFECT OF FAIRNESS AND TRANSPARENCY IN COUPON DESIGN
discounted brands. Price concerns have also been shown to come into play in that the higher the value of
a coupon, the more likely its redemption is (Bawa and Shoemaker, 1987).
Using the term “market maven”, to designate a special type of consumer, Price et al, (1988)
introduced a specific measurement scale to classify those consumers who like to research many types of
products, shopping venues and markets. Market mavens often go another step to provide other consumers
with useful market information—including coupons, of which they are significant users (Fortin, 2000). A
related group, “smart shoppers”, are seen to be ego-expressive in nature, including their use of coupons
(Schindler, 1989). As consumers interested in getting a good deal, they are influenced by motivating
factors directly linked to feelings of positive self-concept and self-efficacy. Smart shoppers tend to
initiate usage: they can often be characterized, for example, as the joyful person standing in line in a
supermarket, holding a coupon that no one else has (Fortin, 2000).
Redemption behaviour has been found to be influenced by a variety of factors. Frequent users of
coupons are more likely to redeem a coupon that is about to expire than at the beginning, and redemption
rates gradually increase before the expiry date (Inman and McAlister, 1994). Two additional constructs
coupon proneness and value consciousness have been shown to explain a full 28% of variance in selfreported coupon behaviour (Lichtenstein, Netemeyer, & Burton ,1990). Coupon proneness, coupon
characteristics, and demographics as measured in the Logit model, of coupon redemption predicts
redemption intentions for close to 90% of consumers (Bawa, Srinivasan, & Srivastava, 1997). Differing
reactions to varying features of coupons affects redemption rates as well (Ramaswamy and Srinivasan
1998). In a study by Swaminathan & Bawa (2005), category specific measures of propensity achieved an
89 % effect for coupon redemption intentions. Using coupons specifically for price discounts can;
however, have negative social implications—creation of an impression of being cheap. Therefore,
coupon redemption can involve a social incentive to avoid coupons on the one hand, for example creating
an image of being “cheap”, but economic incentives can outweigh that constraint on the other (Ashworth,
Darke, & Schaller 2005). Consumers may also avoid coupon use for fear of looking cheap (Dhar &
Hoch, 1996). A recent study by Brumbaugh & Rosa (2009) found that embarrassment and confidence can
Running Head: THE EFFECT OF FAIRNESS AND TRANSPARENCY IN COUPON DESIGN
impact the atmosphere of in store interactions with sales people and coupon redemption. The authors were
able to conclude, using a diverse population for their study, that consumers felt uneasy and hold wrong
thoughts regarding cashiers because they were using a coupon and as a consequence affected their
confidence and felt embarrassed. This ultimately affected their coupon usage.
The growing body of literature on coupons and other promotional deals can be classified broadly
into two streams of research. The first involves aggregate modeling of the effects of coupon or deal
characteristics on redemption rates (e.g., Henderson 1985) and related outcomes such as purchase
acceleration and brand switching (e.g., Dodson, Tybout, and Sternthal 1978). The second stream seeks to
explain factors that influence consumers to use coupons and to identify the characteristics of consumers
who are “deal prone” (e.g., Bawa and Shoemaker, 1987a; Levedahl, 1988; Narasimhan 1984; Teel,
Williams, and Bearden 1980). Most studies used regression analysis with a single measurement of
coupon usage, while other studies used self-reported measures of past coupon usage. These studies lack
precision and don’t really capture areas that can better explain coupon usage (Fortin, 2000).
Some studies did use multiple indicators for coupon usage like quantity used/week, quantity dollar
purchased, dollar value and dollar value as a percent of purchase (Mittal, 1994; Price et al., 1988).
Additionally, many couponing studies did enhance our understanding of couponing behaviour: the most
convincing theoretical application, for example, comes from the theory of reasoned action (Bagozzie,
Baumgartner, and Yi (1992); Shimp & Kavas, 1984). Shimp and Kavas (1984) applied the theory of
reasoned action for traditional coupon usage. They concluded that the theory of reasoned action is helpful
in specifying the requirements for coupon usage for grocery shopping. Three requirements--intentions,
attitudes and subjective norms - accounted for up to 48% of its variance, depending on the model
examined. Bagozzie et al. (1992) extended the work started by Shimp and Kavas (1984) by evaluating
the impact of one more variable in the theory of reasoned action, state versus action orientation. It
reflects a person’s readiness to make a decision and implement it, and is measured with a 20-item scale.
The goal of their study was to assess the moderating effect of that construct along with a measure of past
Running Head: THE EFFECT OF FAIRNESS AND TRANSPARENCY IN COUPON DESIGN
behavior in the theoretical model. Their finding concluded that previous coupon usage was not captured
by either attitudes or subjective norms.
The current research pool shows a wealth of published papers on coupon usage and theory in the
past 30 years. Of the two streams of coupon redemption behaviour identified by (Mittal, 1994), one
involves aggregate modeling of the effects of coupon or deal characteristics on redemption rates and
related outcomes such as purchase acceleration and brand switching. The second stream seeks to explain
factors that influence consumers to use coupons and to identify the characteristics of consumers that are
also “deal prone.”
Overall, it is clear that knowledge of the factors or attributes affecting coupon redemption based on
fairness and tranparency are needed to assist marketing managers in designing effective coupon
promotions, but that knowledge to this point is limited. For example, coupon usage or intention to use is
quite well understood, but fairness and transparency are not studied at all in the context of coupon
promotions. This study addresses the perceptions of fairness and transparency in the context of coupon
attributes such as vague/clear restrictions on coupon promotions, dollar value coupons vs. percentage-off
coupons, presence or absence of the regular price on a coupon, and examines the results for coupon
redemption behaviour in the above specific circumstances.
The concept of fairness
According to Oxford dictionary, to be fair is to obey the rules and standards. In reality the concept
of fairness is quite complex and perhaps it is for this reason that scholars not only from marketing field
but also from other disciplines have been interested in the meaning and application of fairness. Scholars
from social psychology and organizational behaviour studied the concept of fairness. Researchers define
fairness beyond its definition to provide a broader interpretation like outcome (Adams, 1965), process or
procedures (Thibaut & Walker, 1975) and interactions that include information and interpersonal (Bies &
Moag, 1986). Fairness can also mean “acceptable” and “just” (Maxwell, 2008). In economics, it is
believed that presence of fair minded individuals may have significant economic effects (Kahneman et al.,
Running Head: THE EFFECT OF FAIRNESS AND TRANSPARENCY IN COUPON DESIGN
1986; Camerer & Thaler, 1995; Bewley, 1999; Fehr & Gacher, 2000). That is why economic transactions
are not just driven by economic motives and it is very important to know when individuals perceive
differences in prices as fair. This has led to several important models of fairness. These models have one
common element and that is some individuals by default favour fairness and in addition to their liking for
material gains. The most impressive element of these models is that they are able to predict a large
number of contradictory facts accurately (Rabin, 1993; Levine, 1998; Dufwenberg & Kirchsteiger, 2004;
Falk & Fischbacher, 2006; Fehr & Schmidt 1999; Bolton & Ockenfels, 2000; Charness & Rabin, 2002).
Aside from economic and psychological importance of fairness concept, fairness is a key concept in
marketing as well. Any transaction between a buyer and a seller includes two basic things: 1) a product is
sold; 2) a price is paid. To be able to establish a happy relationship, a buyer must always perceive that the
price is a fair one. Research show that business cost should be in line with industry practices and this can
affect perceive price fairness of a firm in terms of its reputation and price tag also has an effect on
shoppers’ perceptions of fairness and their eagerness to purchase (Campbell 1999, Bolton et al, 2003, Xia
et al, 2004; Maxwell 2005). Price promotion typically provides consumers with savings and depending
on the characteristic of a price promotion, consumers may develop their own fairness judgement towards
the price promotion tactics and it can impact the perception of the price promotion (Kukar-Kinney, Xia, &
Monroe, 2007). When consumers receive a product on price promotion, the offer may provide them with
a lower price. On other hand, consumer may have to make non-monetary sacrifices to acquire the deal,
for example looking and searching for a lower price, or clipping a coupon. In situation like this,
obviously consumers expect to get a lower price and get rewarded for their efforts to obtain the deal.
However, there are no guarantees that they may receive a lower price (e.g.; a coupon has been expired
and not valid anymore). Previous studies have examined the sellers’ non-monetary efforts as input for
justifying a price (Huppertz, Arenson, & Evan 1978). Kahneman et al 1986, suggest that unfairness is, "an
opportunity for gain that cannot be exploited". In this research, we argue that the opportunity to gain can
be a coupon (discount % or rebate $). Anything that prevents (restricts) someone from exploiting the
opportunity is unfair. If there is a cost to meeting a restriction, the consumer balances the cost against the
Running Head: THE EFFECT OF FAIRNESS AND TRANSPARENCY IN COUPON DESIGN
gain and decides whether to use the coupon or not. If there is no way to meet the restriction (i.e. only
available to Torontonians with valid tourist visas), then an economist would say this is unfair, because the
opportunity to gain cannot be exploited. Too many restrictions simply means people won't use the
coupon because it is too hard (costly) to redeem profitably (exploiting the opportunity for gain). Many
restrictions are also time consuming to read and understand, hence there is a cost to figuring these out that
may exceed the benefit the coupon offers. Transparency means all the information that the consumer
needs to determine if the coupon is worth the effort is provided. Not transparent means some information
is not stated. For example "regular price", where as the stated price $4.99 would be transparent.
Within price fairness, there are a number of different research streams. Here, we begin with the
role of effort in obtaining a price promotion and its relationship with the concept of fairness.
Information Transparency
In marketing literature, information transparency means the degree of visibility and accessibility of
information (Zhu, 2002). The notion of information transparency comes from the finance sector,
particularly in the area of stocks and banking regulations (Miao & Mattila, 2007, & Zhu, 2002). It is a
relatively new concept in marketing literature. Information transparency has been shown to have five
dimensions: access, comprehensiveness, relevance, quality, and reliability (Vishwanath and Kaufmann,
2001). For example, Hofstede (2002) integrates information transparency as having qualities of relevance,
accuracy, factuality, quantity, reliability, and timeliness. Research shows that most of the definitions for
information transparency are context specific. Degree of availability, accessibility, and visibility of
information also enter into qualities required for transparency and it is further related to the related the
element of understanding the information (Zhu, 2002). Another study by Remsperger and Worm (1999)
pointed out that information richness and information transparency are not the same concepts and that
having a lot of information does not lead to maximum transparency.
Transparency can assist consumers in perceiving hotel pricing to be more fair, reasonable,
acceptable, and honest when they see the rate for each night’s stay compared to the average rate per night
Running Head: THE EFFECT OF FAIRNESS AND TRANSPARENCY IN COUPON DESIGN
of other hotels (Rohlfs and Kimes, 2007). In recent research by Noon and Mattila (2009) similar results
were found, consumers showed preference for staying in a hotel where the rates for each of two nights
varied by lowering the second night instead of being charged the same rate for both nights. It shows that
consumers like to conceptualize rate transparency by the amount of information about rates provided on
travel websites. Maio and Mattila (2007) had also found that consumers are willing to pay more when
they are exposed to actual online pricing that lists hotels in ascending rate order, making it easier for them
to compare prices.
Recently, it was found that for transparency to have a positive impact, pricing with savings should
be completely transparent (Tanford, Erdem, & Balogu, 2011). It has a negative effect when savings are
hidden, causing the consumers to be more likely to select the opaque package. They also suggest that
transparency has a more favourable impact when the price is not the same as for an opaque package,
whereas transparency has a less favourable impact when the price is the same.
Previous research shows that most information transparency studies examine the impact of
transparency in the context of price in the hospitality industry. There is a lack of research to examine the
effect of information transparency in coupon promotions.
Conceptual model and research hypotheses
Before presentation of the proposed research hypotheses, a brief discussion of the conceptual model
for the research is in order. To address the gap in the coupon literature in relation to fairness and
transparency and their effect on consumers’ intention to use a coupon, a model of their interactions is
proposed. Figure 1 below shows the relationship lie between coupon design, fairness and transparency
and consumer action to redeem a coupon.
Running Head: THE EFFECT OF FAIRNESS AND TRANSPARENCY IN COUPON DESIGN
Figure 1. Conceptual Model of fairness and transparency based on coupon design
Since the main objective of this study is to examine the perception of fairness and transparency in
design of coupon promotions and their effect on coupon usage, and below are the proposed hypotheses
are that are test in this research.
H1: Providing regular price information on a coupon is likely to positively increase consumers’
perception of fairness.
H1a: Providing regular price information on a coupon is likely to positively increase consumers’
perception of transparency.
H2: A high value coupon is likely to positively increase consumers’ perception of fairness.
H2a: A high value coupon is likely to positively increase consumers’ perception of transparency.
Running Head: THE EFFECT OF FAIRNESS AND TRANSPARENCY IN COUPON DESIGN
H3: Framing face value in dollar-value on a coupon is likely to positively increase consumers’
perception of fairness.
H3a: Framing face value in dollar-value on a coupon is likely to positively increase consumers’
perception of transparency.
H4: Providing a longer expiry date on a coupon is likely to positively increase consumers’
perception of fairness.
H4a: Providing a longer expiry date on a coupon is likely to positively increase consumers’
perception of transparency.
H5: Providing clear restriction on a coupon is likely to positively increase consumers’ perception of
fairness.
H5a: Providing clear restriction on a coupon is likely to positively increase consumers’ perception
of transparency.
H6: Fairness is likely to be positively related to intention to use coupon.
H7: Transparency is likely to be positively related to intention to use coupon.
Method
A discrete choice experiment (DCE) is a quantitative technique that has the capability to predict
almost all aspects of a real market as accurately as possible (Louviere and Woodworth, 1983). In a
discrete choice experiment (DCE), respondents are presented with samples of hypothetical alternatives
(choice sets). Each alternative or choice set is described by a number of attributes and individuals are
asked to choose one alternative. It provides researchers with the flexibility to uncover how respondents’
rate chosen attributes of a coupon, product, or service by asking them to choose one choice over different
hypothetical scenarios or alternatives. Researchers use DCE to determine the importance of the attributes
and how an individual may prefer one attribute over another (Drummond et al. 2005). For this study,
participants were asked to choose a coupon option of their preference from different combinations of
Running Head: THE EFFECT OF FAIRNESS AND TRANSPARENCY IN COUPON DESIGN
regular price, expiry date, location and quantity restrictions, saving in terms of percentage and dollar
amount value based on fairness and transparency and which coupon to use or redeem.
This study was designed in the context of donuts and coffee promotion and conducted in the biggest
mall in Guelph, Ontario, the Stone Road Mall. Data on participations’ redemption intention was collected
using a discrete choice experiment (DCE). The intention was to select products that most of the
consumers can relate to and as a result coffee and donuts were chosen. Another benefit of using these
products is that they are non gender specific which provide us the ability to generalize the findings to
similar product categories. Participants were asked to choose a coupon from three different options based
on which option they thought was fair and transparent, and they were also asked which choice they will
actually use for their purchase.
In the Coffee and Donut Coupon Perceptions Experiment, six attributes were chosen because of
their importance and relevance to coupon design. For example, the inclusion of regular price is an
important attribute to any sales promotion, and particularly for coupons, because this is one way to
actually to know the real savings provided by a coupon. Also, savings in a dollar amount compared to a
percentage is important for consumers because savings are not only important in terms of the monetary
value of a coupon but the framing in dollars compared to percentage has huge implications for consumers.
It is usually easier to calculate and understand the savings from using a coupon in dollar amounts than in
percentages. As indicated earlier in the literature review section, expiry date is important in coupon
redemption because consumers are concerned with loss of expired coupons. Therefore, there is an
increase in coupon redemption toward the end of expiry date. Location was chosen as one of the
attributes because of Tim Horton’s different outlets around the city and it was important to know if this
affected consumers’ effort for using a coupon in a specific location. Besides, it is also a common practice
for businesses to locate their coupon redemption to a specific store or area. Restrictions for product
quantity and face value were included because of their common usage on coupon designs and this was
decided based on the content analysis from a survey of coupon characteristics in common use.
Running Head: THE EFFECT OF FAIRNESS AND TRANSPARENCY IN COUPON DESIGN
In the Coffee and Donut Coupon Perceptions Experiment, for the attribute Restrictions, four levels
were finalized: minimum purchase of one drink, some restrictions apply, this coupon can only be used
for donut, and while quantities last. The rest of the attributes were kept at two levels and this was done for
ease of cognition. With regards to these remaining attributes, for Framing of Coupon, the two levels were
dollar amount ($) and percentage (%), for Face Value, the levels were high and low, for Regular Prices
the two level available and not available, for Expiry Date, the levels were 1 day and 1 week, for Location,
the levels were to redeem at Tim Horton’s Stone Road Mall location and any other location in the city of
Guelph.
In the first part of the survey, participants were asked questions such as the type of coupons that
they were familiar with and what kind of coupons they have used in real shopping scenario. Are they
aware of coupons like for baby products, health and beauty, grocery coupons? This was done to make the
experience more realistic and enjoyable for them. In the actual coupon scenarios, participants would see
three choices including a no-choice coupon and they had to choose which option was fair (reasonable and
equitable) and which option was transparent (understandable and clear), and which option they would buy
for their coffee. When participants were finished taking the computer based survey, and then they were
compensated with a five dollar mall gift certificate for their participation. There were two main
restrictions for Coffee and Donut Coupon Perceptions Experiment, a) participants had to be at least 18
years or older and b) they must have used a coupon in the last six months.
Results
A total of 200 surveys were administered to participants at the Stone Road Mall, largest malls in the
city of Guelph, Ontario. The discrete choice experiment (DCE) and the DCE scenarios were
programmed in Microsoft Power Point for data collection and fortunately all 200 surveys collected were
determined to be usable for data analysis.
The socio demographic data included gender, age, the highest level of education achieved,
employment status, nature of work, and house hold income level. After analysis of the data for socio
Running Head: THE EFFECT OF FAIRNESS AND TRANSPARENCY IN COUPON DESIGN
demographic parameters using SPSS software, it was found that 37.5% of the survey participants were
male (and the remaining 62.5% were female).
Table 1 shows the results for the discrete choice model for fairness. It contains 9600 observations;
based on the response of 200 individuals performing 16 choice tasks and each task had 3 options. The p
values indicate that face value amount, location restriction, donut only (clear restriction), and expiry date
are significantly important in coupon redemption. When participants took discrete choice survey, the
above attributes were significant for perception of fairness in terms of redeeming coupons.
Table1. Results of the Discrete Choice (Multinomial Logit) Model for Fairness
Attributes
Estimate
SE
T-value
Regular Price present
0.07814
0.0574 1.361329
Face value framing ($)
-0.28713
0.1678 -1.71116
Face value amount (0, 0.4,$ 1)
0.504047
0.1757 2.868796
Face value framing (%)
-0.37678
0.1477 -2.55096
Face value amount (0, 15%,35%)
0.013086 0.003973 3.293813
Location restriction
-0.16557
0.0276 -5.99881
Some restrictions
0.062097
0.0449
1.383
Donut only
-0.12095
0.0497 -2.43363
Quantity restrictions
0.045493
0.037 1.229546
Expiry date
0.092075
0.028 3.288391
Considered Transparent
0.736792
0.0398 18.51236
Considered buying
0.746307
0.0404 18.47295
*P-value significant at 95% confidence level
P-value
0.17494431
0.08861305
0.00456278*
0.01149248*
0.00116889*
0.00000001*
0.16820997
0.01582804*
0.2203139
0.00119044*
0*
0*
Furthermore table 2 shows results for p values and importance of attributes in terms of transparency
and their effectiveness in coupon redemption. A comparison of results for table 1 and table 2 across
different attributes can bring us to important conclusions. For example, table 1 shows that presence of
regular price is not so important when it comes to fairness. However, it has a lot of importance in terms
of transparency and this is interesting results because the absence of regular price on a coupon will not
help a consumer to understand the actual saving on a coupon. The results from table 1 and 2 support all of
the hypotheses that attributes like regular price, face value amount, locations restrictions, donut only
(clear restrictions) have significant influence on perception of fairness and transparency and ultimately on
coupon usage. Another important result from this experiment was that face value framing both in terms
Running Head: THE EFFECT OF FAIRNESS AND TRANSPARENCY IN COUPON DESIGN
of fairness and transparency are not significant (See table 1 & table 2) for this experiment. Since this
experiment was conducted in the context of coffee and donut and both of these products are low priced,
so marketers should use a percentage-off coupon.
Table2. Results of the Discrete Choice (Multinomial Logit) Model for Transparency
Attributes
Estimate
SE
T-value
Regular Price present
0.12912
0.0537
2.404467
Face value framing ($)
-0.19942
0.1648
-1.21009
Face value amount (0, 0.4,$ 1)
0.406154
0.1715
2.368246
Face value framing (%)
-0.21625
0.1421
-1.52179
Face value amount (0, 15%,35%)
0.003201 0.003878 0.825305
Location restriction
-0.05683
0.027
-2.10484
Some restrictions
-0.25608
0.0456
-5.61577
Donut only
0.172623
0.047
3.672836
Quantity restrictions
-0.01724
0.0362
-0.47624
Expiry date
0.042623
0.0279
1.527723
Considered fair
0.737804
0.0398
18.53778
Considered buying
0.659998
0.0411
16.05834
*P-value significant at 95% confidence level
P-value
0.01710815*
0.22770708
0.01882627*
0.12966373
0.41018457
0.03655749*
0.00000006*
0.00030788*
0.63445168
0.12816202
0*
0*
Results in table 3 show that regular price information on a coupon is important for consumer
intention to buy a product (P <0.0009), Face value framing (%) is significant for intention to buy at (P
<0.0008), and face value amount in terms of % is also signigicant. Location restrictions, clear restrictions
like donut only, quantity restriction, expiry date are all signigicant with p values of 0.0001, 0, 0.000009,
and 0.00000001. The constructs fairness and transparency are important for coupon redemption as well
(see table 3).
Table3. Results of the Discrete Choice (Multinomial Logit) Model for Intention to Buy
Attributes
Regular Price present
Face value framing ($)
Face value amount (0, 0.4,$ 1)
Face value framing (%)
Face value amount (0, 15%,35%)
Location restriction
Some restrictions
Donut only
Estimate
0.200287
-0.06927
0.328622
-0.62256
0.022762
-0.10616
0.067858
-0.45628
SE
0.0595
0.1753
0.178
0.1549
0.004124
0.0275
0.0451
0.0525
T-value
3.366166
-0.39513
1.84619
-4.01908
5.519471
-3.8604
1.504619
-8.69112
P-value
0.00091393*
0.69319013
0.06634247
0.00008274*
0.00000001*
0.00015282*
0.13400193
0*
Running Head: THE EFFECT OF FAIRNESS AND TRANSPARENCY IN COUPON DESIGN
Quantity restrictions
0.169111
0.0371
4.55824
Expiry date
0.154901
0.0282
5.492933
Considered fair
0.745869
0.0404
18.46211
Considered Transparent
0.658688
0.041
16.06556
*P-value significant at 95% confidence level
0.00000897*
0.00000012*
0*
0*
Discussion
During difficult financial times, it is natural that consumers would seek ways to improve their
financial situation. Obviously, one way to do that is by using more coupons because there are many basic
items for which coupons are available. Using more coupons would certainly help the buying power of
most consumers and eventually improving their livelihood. However, surprisingly enough, coupon
redemption is very low (<1%) and there is a large segment of society that do not use coupons. This
research was looking for answers for seeming an illogical behaviour of not using coupons especially in a
time that many consumers want to save money. Therefore, this research looked at the design of a coupon
in a number of common coupon attributes such as dollar value Vs percentage savings, inclusion of regular
price information on coupons, shorter and longer expiry dates, vague and clear restrictions in coupon
design and examined the role of fairness and transparency in relation to coupon usage. In a recent survey
by (NHC, 2013), 11.3% of consumers reported that they were using fewer coupons and the cause was
“offer expiration” before they had a chance to use the coupons. 9.5% of the consumer indicated that they
are using fewer coupons because the savings are not significant. 7% reported that they were asked to buy
too much in order to get the savings. One of the main and important reasons for lack of coupon usage
may be attributed to the fact that marketers do not design attractive enough coupons to induce usage.
One reason for providing not attractive offers via coupons may see that marketers are “gun shy”
and afraid that increased coupon usage will increase their redemption expenses. From marketing
perspectives, these concerns are short-sighted especially considering losing a segment of shoppers to
other brands or private brands that offer less expensive products.
Running Head: THE EFFECT OF FAIRNESS AND TRANSPARENCY IN COUPON DESIGN
The findings from this research could help marketers to reach out to consumers by designing more
transparent and fair coupons in terms of providing more value (higher savings/benefits), more easy to
understand savings (clear restrictions & inclusion of regular price information on a coupon), and with
convenient and ample time (e.g., two weeks expiry date).
This research has three key implications for academics and marketing practitioners and they
certainly deserve highlighting here. 1) this research shed lights on the importance of fairness and
transparency issues in designing coupons, 2) this is the first study in couponing to conduct intention and
behavior for coupon usage, 3) this research showed that regular price and vague restriction are related to
perception of transparency in coupon redemption; and also longer expiry date, higher value, dollar
amount are important in terms of fairness for coupon usage.
Coupons are an important factor for businesses to evaluate for effectiveness in terms of selling new
products and repeat purchase. As coupons are becoming more important for businesses and consumers,
the effectiveness of coupons promotion are also critical for many businesses (Bawa, 1996). This research
has shown that the design of a coupon is important for a coupon promotion success and there are
important implications from knowledge of how coupons are perceived in terms of the two proposed
constructs of fairness and transparency.
This study was conducted to determine both redemption intensions and redemption behaviour.
Although the studies were highly correlated, the actual coupon redemption was lower than the intension
redemption. This can be expected because consumers might misplace the coupon or forget to use coupon
they have selected. As previous research has shown other factors also may mediate the relationship
between intention and actual behaviour (Bagozzi, Baumgartner and Yi 1992).
The results of this research confirmed that inclusion of regular price on a coupon, savings in terms
of dollar amount compared to percentage, higher amount of savings and longer expiry dates, and finally
coupons with clear restrictions compared to vague and confusing statements do influence redemption
decisions. In the following section is explanation of specific factors which affect consumers’ perception
of fairness and factors which have an impact in terms of transparency.
Running Head: THE EFFECT OF FAIRNESS AND TRANSPARENCY IN COUPON DESIGN
Theoretical and managerial implications
Previous research on coupon redemption has looked at coupon usage from two different
perspectives. In the first stream of research, marketing scholars have investigated factors that may
motivate consumers to use coupons and outlined the characteristics of consumers who are “coupon prone”
(Bawa and Shoe maker 1987a; Leveduhl 1988; Narashimhan 1984; Teel, Williams, and Bearden 1980).
These studies have helped us to learn a great deal about coupon usage behaviour and most of these looked
at coupon usage based on the number of coupons used without considering the type of coupon available
to consumers. Obviously, people who like to use coupons act not only depend on their desire to redeem
coupons but also on the type of coupons they like. For example, some consumer may prefer to use
coupons with higher face value and longer expiry date and others may prefer to see coupon savings
indicated in dollar amount as compared to percentage of price. The second stream of coupon research
looked at coupon usage based on the characteristics of the coupon promotion (Bawa and Shoemaker
1987b; Reitbstein and Traver 1982; Ward and Davis 1978). These studies helped us to learn about factor
such as face value as being important to coupon usage. The aggregate nature of these studies has not
considered the individual characteristics of coupon proneness.
The above discussion suggests there was
a need for a study to show how the individual characteristics on a coupon would affect coupon
redemption. Therefore, this research has made important contribution in terms of the theory to the current
body of literature on coupon effectiveness in several ways.
First and for most, this research looked at several individual characteristics of coupons such as
display of regular price on a coupon, expiry date and face value, face value in dollar amount compared to
percentage, and coupons with clear restrictions compared to vague ones and their relation to coupon
usage. The above characteristics were manipulated in terms of fairness and transparency and this study
showed that fairness and transparency are important factors in determining coupon redemption. Results
from both studies showed that people clearly prefer coupons that are easy to understand and also worth
their efforts to redeem them.
Running Head: THE EFFECT OF FAIRNESS AND TRANSPARENCY IN COUPON DESIGN
This research has valuable managerial implications in regard to how best design coupons in order to
increase coupon usage. These managerial recommendations are described below:
Previous research shows that the perceived effort to redeem has an impact on consumers’ fairness
perceptions of a promotion (Xia et al, 2010). The research from this study suggests that marketers should
provide the regular price information the savings framed in dollar value lack context so it is unclear what
the actual coupon value is. The findings from this study confirmed that marketers are encouraged to use
saving in dollar value on a coupon rather than percentage off because with the saving being more explicit,
consumers do not need to use of the same cognitive efforts to understand the exact savings from a
coupon. It is from the finding this study that we know that consumers prefer inclusion of explicit
information such as saving in dollar value and presence of the regular price information on a coupon is
perceived as more transparent and fair.
Research suggests that violation of the feeling of entitlement is regarded as the most fundamental
feature of injustice (Lerner 1991; Mikula, 1993). Xia et al. (2010) concluded that when consumers are
denied information on the promoted price, the perceived level of effort may have a negative effect on
inferred retailer motives and of fairness of the promotion. Findings from two studies reported here
provide important managerial implications.
Retailers have traditionally used expiry dates in relations to restrictions in coupons to limit financial
liability and to generate prompt action on the part of consumers (Inman & McAlister, 1994; Krishna &
Zhang, 1999; Spears, 2001). However, with the important insight to coupon promotion in terms of
transparency and fairness provided by the current research, it is understood that when consumers are
denied a coupon promotion because of a restriction such as short expiry date or vague restriction
perceived wasted effort will have a negative impact on inferred motives of the retailers in relation to
transparency and fairness of coupon promotion.
Research has shown that restriction is a powerful tool to use, but “all restrictions are not created
equal” (Inman et al., 1997). A study by Tan and Chua (2004) showed that the effects of one type of
restriction, non specific or vague scarcity restriction such as “while stocks last” has an impact on
Running Head: THE EFFECT OF FAIRNESS AND TRANSPARENCY IN COUPON DESIGN
consumers’ perceived informational value. We would argue that marketers should provide consumers
with clear restrictions and avoid using unclear restrictions such as (some restrictions apply) because when
the promoted coupon is denied, consumers’ expectations of receiving the savings are not met, thereby
violating their feeling of entitlement. Additionally, if unclear restrictions cause consumers to be denied
anticipated saving, they may feel their invested effort to use the coupon are now wasted. This may
increase the feeling of unfairness on the parts of consumers and reduce the possibility that they will be
enticed by future coupons with unclear restrictions.
The findings from this study have some important applications for marketing managers which they
can use to help them to design more effective promotions campaign. Also, marketing managers can more
accurately predict a coupon promotion usage rate and this will help in two ways; 1) the direct cost of a
promotion can be calculate in advance, 2) this could also help avoid wasting money on unused coupons
and the money can be allocated to alternative sales promotion campaigns.
Running Head: THE EFFECT OF FAIRNESS AND TRANSPARENCY IN COUPON DESIGN
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Running Head: HOW SALES PROMOTIONS INDUCE CONSUMER TO BUY ON
IMPULSE: THE ROLE OF IMPULSIVITY TRAIT
How Sales Promotions Induce Consumers to Buy on Impulse:
The Role of Impulsivity Trait
Mahshid Omid, Université Laval, Canada
Frank Pons, Université Laval, Canada
Extended Abstract
These days, impulse buying is widespread within the consumer population and across various
product categories (Rook, 1987) as over 50 percent of mall shoppers buy items on impulse and as much
as 70 percent of all grocery items are purchased impulsively (Coley & Burgess, 2003). Impulse buying
provides significant additional revenue for manufacturers and retailers such that it is suggested that
fostering impulse buying is one of the main determinants of today’s company sales revenue (Hausman,
2000). However, in order to derive benefit of impulse buying phenomenon marketing managers need to
understand how to attract and retain a significant share of impulsive purchases. To this end, they should
recognize the factors that encourage impulse buying and the proper way to handle them. In order to
contribute to this understanding, this article proposes a conceptual model (Figure 1) that integrates all
aspects of why and how sales promotions induce impulse buying, with the aim to specify the relationships
among the type of the sales promotion (monetary vs. non-monetary), consumer impulsivity trait, the
affective and cognitive psychological reactions, and the impulse buying behavior. We distinguish between
monetary and non-monetary promotions as they are supposed to trigger different responses in consumers
(Chandon, Wansink, & Laurent, 2000). Also, we investigate the moderating role of impulsivity trait as
impulsive and non-impulsive consumers are supposed to not behave identically to situational stimuli
(Beatty & Ferrell, 1998). As follows, we briefly discuss the conceptual framework and research
hypotheses of this study. In future experimental studies we will test this model and its hypotheses.
Running Head: HOW SALES PROMOTIONS INDUCE CONSUMER TO BUY ON
IMPULSE: THE ROLE OF IMPULSIVITY TRAIT
Figure 1: The Conceptual Model
Ramanathan and Menon (2006) noted that the external stimuli that activate hedonic goals tend to
intensify consumer desire for the stimuli and favor impulsive behaviors. According to Chandon et al.
(2000), monetary and non-monetary promotions have respectively utilitarian and hedonic nature. Thus,
we hypothesize that, compared to monetary sales promotions, non-monetary promotions generate higher
impulse buying.
Furthermore, since consumers regard the purchase of promoted products as a benefit on whole
(Adelaar, Chang, Lancendorfer, Lee, & Morimoto, 2003), the exposure to sales promotions elicits
positive affective reactions (Heilman, Nakamoto, & Rao, 2002; Naylor, Raghunathan, & Ramanathan,
2006) and incites a positive desire in consumer mind (Millner, 2002). As a nonmonetary promotion is
considered as a particular kind of gift-giving situation (Bodur & Grohmann, 2005), consumers do not feel
obliged to think of reasons for their choices (Khan, Dhar, & Wertenbroch, 2005). It is why Palazon and
Delgado-Ballester (2013) found that when a hedonic premium is preferred, affective reactions exert a
direct impact on purchase intentions of the promotional offer without mediation of cognition. Thus, we
hypothesize that when encountering a nonmonetary sales promotion, consumers use their affective
reactions as a heuristic to evaluate the purchase decision and engage in an impulsive purchase. In other
words, in the presence of non-monetary promotions, the impact of affective reactions on impulsive choice
would be significantly higher than the impact of cognitive reactions.
Moreover, according to Jalan (2006), when both personality traits and external cues work together,
a strong positive force is generated which gives rise to a such impulsive urge that the individual cannot
Running Head: HOW SALES PROMOTIONS INDUCE CONSUMER TO BUY ON
IMPULSE: THE ROLE OF IMPULSIVITY TRAIT
resist buying on impulse. Encountering a non-monetary promotion by an impulsive consumer can
produce such situation. Thus, we hypothesize that in the presence of non-monetary promotions, compared
to non-impulsive consumers, impulsive consumers (a) experience higher promotion affect and (b) engage
in more impulsive purchases.
However, since non-impulsive consumers tend to be concerned with “smart buying” (Youn &
Faber, 2000), it is not likely that the mere experience of impulsive urge to buy, generated by the exposure
to monetary promotions, drives them to engage in impulse buying. Grewal, Marmorstein, and Sharma
(1996) suggested that non-impulsive consumers interpret monetary promotion stimuli in terms of
previously acquired knowledge and the result of this holistic analytical assessment determines if they buy
the promoted product on impulse or not . Based on the result of the holistic assessment, if the promotion
size is low, it is not of value and so there is no need to do further cognitive processing (Grewal et al.,
1996) and thus an avoidance action tendency is primed. As non-impulsive people are successful selfregulators with a relatively low commitment to hedonic goals (Fishbach, Friedman, & Kruglanski, 2003),
this avoidance action tendency primed by cognitions should attenuate the approach action tendency
driven by positive affect and lead to the ignorance of low monetary promotion. Therefore, we posit that
non-impulsive consumers ignore low monetary promotions and thus for these consumers encountering
low monetary promotions is not likely to result is impulse buying. On the other hand, if the promotion
size is acceptably high, consumers feel little uncertainty about the perceived value of the promotion, feel
no need to do further cognitive processing (Grewal et al., 1996), and so an approach tendency is primed.
Although this approach tendency may conflict with the goal to stay in control and restrain impulses
(Ramanathan & Menon, 2006), we posit that in the exposure of high monetary promotions non-impulsive
consumers do not have the willingness to restrain their impulses; they choose to yield to their temptations
in order to enjoy the economic benefits of their immediate decisions and to make use of great bargains
(Keinan, Kivetz, & Netzer, 2008; Kivetz & Keinan, 2006). In this case, yielding to impulses would
constitute a deliberate act of self-indulgence (Tice, Bratslavsky, & Baumeister, 2001). Thus, we
Running Head: HOW SALES PROMOTIONS INDUCE CONSUMER TO BUY ON
IMPULSE: THE ROLE OF IMPULSIVITY TRAIT
hypothesize that for non-impulsive consumers, in the presence of monetary promotions, (a) the impact of
cognitive reactions on impulsive choice is significantly higher than the impact of affective reactions and
(b) as the promotion level increases from low to high, impulse buying behavior increases as well.
On the other hand, impulsive people have a strong preference for exciting and new experiences
(Whiteside & Lynam, 2001) so that doing a purchase decision they focus on non-instrumental and affectladen benefits of products (e.g., aesthetic, novelty, fantasy, and fun) (Liao, Shen, & Chu, 2009). Since
monetary promotions provide weak hedonic benefits (Chandon et al., 2000), we hypothesize that,
compared to non-impulsive consumers, impulsive consumers are not much interested in monetary
promotions and in encountering these promotion do not experience much positive affect. Further, since
impulsive people shop at an emotional and arousal-driven pace (Liao et al., 2009), we hypothesize that in
the exposure to monetary promotions they experience less cognitive reactions than do non-impulsive
consumers.
Running Head: HOW SALES PROMOTIONS INDUCE CONSUMER TO BUY ON
IMPULSE: THE ROLE OF IMPULSIVITY TRAIT
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Running Head: HOW SALES PROMOTIONS INDUCE CONSUMER TO BUY ON
IMPULSE: THE ROLE OF IMPULSIVITY TRAIT
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Running Head: CENTRALITÉ ET ÉTHIQUE DE LA MARQUE
Centralité et éthique de la marque
Soumaya Cheikhrouhou, Université de Sherbrooke, Canada
Deny Belisle, Université de Sherbrooke, Canada
Margaux Bruniere, Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada
Résumé
Cette étude expérimentale démontre que 1) l’option centrale dans un étalage est perçue comme
plus éthique que celles présentées aux extrémités et que 2) la perception de la popularité de la marque a
un impact positif sur ses comportements pro-sociaux perçus. Ces résultats ont des implications théoriques
et managériales en marchandisage et en éthique de la marque.
Mots clés: Marchandisage, marque, popularité, éthique.
Running Head: CENTRALITÉ ET ÉTHIQUE DE LA MARQUE
Centralité et éthique de la marque
L’exposition des produits en magasin est déterminante pour orienter les choix des consommateurs
sur le lieu de vente. En effet, en 2012, 76% des décisions d’achat des consommateurs nord-américains ont
été prises sur le lieu de vente (POPAI, 2012). Les recherches académiques passées ont démontré qu’en se
basant exclusivement sur la localisation de la marque dans l’étalage, les consommateurs estiment la
qualité, le prix et la popularité de celle-ci (Valenzuela & Raghubir, 2009). Toutefois, les inférences reliées
à l’éthique de la marque basées sur sa localisation sur le linéaire et sur le format de présentation des
produits dans l’étalage demeurent inexplorées. Or, il s’agit d’une problématique-clé vu que l’éthique est
un sujet qui connaît un intérêt croissant à la fois chez les chercheurs en marketing et chez les
consommateurs, constituant de plus en plus un outil de différenciation pour les marques (White,
McDonnell, & Ellard, 2012). L’objectif de cet article est donc d’étudier le lien existant entre la popularité
de la marque et la perception de son niveau éthique et d’évaluer l’impact de la centralité au niveau de
l’étalage sur la perception du niveau éthique de la marque des produits par le consommateur.
Revue de la Littérature
Un produit localisé au centre d’un planogramme apparaît comme le plus populaire de sa catégorie
de produit du point de vue du consommateur (Valenzuela & Raghubir, 2009, 2010 ; Valenzuela,
Raghubir, & Mitakakis, 2013). Ainsi, il serait perçu comme le leader du marché de cette catégorie
(Kamins, Alpert, & Perner, 2003). Or, dans la littérature portant sur l’éthique, plusieurs chercheurs
affirment que le pouvoir a des effets positifs sur le comportement éthique. En effet, certains auteurs
estiment que le pouvoir suscite un comportement empathique plutôt qu’un comportement abusif (ex.
Cartwright, 1965). Les personnes puissantes sont perçues comme étant libres de leurs actions du fait de
leur influence (Overbeck, Tiedens, & Brion, 2006). Ce libre arbitre dont elle bénéficie leur permet de
suivre des principes éthiques en toute autonomie (Cartwright, 1965). Cette liberté d’entreprendre des
actions altruistes sans y être contraint est perçue comme un élément très positif en termes d’éthique. Si
cette perception du niveau d’éthique des puissants dans un contexte interpersonnel est transférée au
Running Head: CENTRALITÉ ET ÉTHIQUE DE LA MARQUE
contexte de marques, cela signifierait qu’une plus grande popularité des marques aboutirait à une plus
grande perception au niveau éthique. Le pouvoir attribué à une marque du fait de sa popularité devrait
donc influencer positivement la perception du consommateur à l’égard de ses comportements prosociaux, soit son éthique, sa responsabilité sociale et son respect de l’environnement. En effet, l’éthique
est souvent associée au respect de l’environnement à travers des actions de développement durable (Luchs
et al., 2010) et à la notion de responsabilité sociale des entreprises (ex. Becker-Olsen, Cudmore, & Hill,
2006). La première hypothèse est ainsi formulée :
H1 : La perception de la popularité de la marque a un impact positif sur la perception des comportements
pro-sociaux associés à la marque, soit a) son éthique, b) sa responsabilité sociale et c) son respect de
l’environnement.
Vu que le lien entre la centralité et la popularité perçue d’une marque a été démontré dans les
recherches de Valenzuela et Raghubir (2009, 2010) et Valenzuela, Raghubir et Mitakakis (2013) et que la
popularité perçue devrait aboutir à une plus grande perception de comportements pro-sociaux effectués
par l’entreprise (H1), les hypothèses suivantes sont énoncées:
H2 : Les consommateurs perçoivent l’option placée au centre comme étant plus éthique que les marques
présentées aux extrémités d’un ensemble d’alternatives ordonnées simultanément d’une manière
horizontale.
H3 : Les consommateurs perçoivent l’option placée au centre comme étant plus éthique que les marques
présentées aux extrémités d’un ensemble d’alternatives ordonnées simultanément d’une manière verticale.
Méthodologie
Après le prétest et la validation par un expert, la collecte des données a été effectuée via un
questionnaire électronique auto-administré d’environ 15 minutes auprès de 197 répondants adultes faisant
partie d’un panel de consommateurs représentatif de la population canadienne anglaise. Dix stimuli ont
été développés dans le cadre de cette recherche. Cinq d’entre eux ont été présentés d’une façon
Running Head: CENTRALITÉ ET ÉTHIQUE DE LA MARQUE
horizontale et les cinq autres d’une manière verticale. Les répondants n’ont vu qu’un seul stimulus et ils
ont été exposés aléatoirement à un ordre différent de présentation des produits au sein du stimulus. Pour
créer les stimuli, cinq marques de lessive sud-coréennes inconnues des répondants, dont les images ont
été collectées sur internet, ont été utilisées. Les mesures utilisées dans le questionnaire provenaient des
écrits de Valenzuela & Raghubir (2010), Gildea (2001), Luchs et al. (2010), Kamins, Alpert, & Perner
(2003) et de Valenzuela, Raghubir, & Mitakakis (2011). Un scénario a également été développé et
présenté en premier lieu dans le questionnaire pour mettre les répondants dans un contexte où ils doivent
choisir un détergent éthique dans un supermarché dans un pays étranger.
Résultats
Une série de régressions simples menées pour chacune des marques présentées dans l’étalage a
permis de tester l’hypothèse 1. Vu que l’ordre de présentation des marques a été randomisé, il s’agit d’une
analyse effectuée pour chacune des positions dans l’étalage allant de la position A à la position E. Il
ressort que pour l’ensemble des marques présentées et pour les deux formats de présentation des produits,
vertical et horizontal, la popularité perçue de la marque a un impact significatif et positif sur 1) la
perception de son niveau d’éthique (p< 0,01 pour chacune des dix régressions), la perception de sa
responsabilité sociale (p< 0,01 pour chacune des dix régressions) et la perception de son respect de
l’environnement (p< 0,01 pour chacune des dix régressions). L’hypothèse H1 est donc confirmée.
Pour tester l’hypothèse 2, une première analyse binomiale (Malhotra, 2010, p.528) a été effectuée
afin de comparer la probabilité des répondants de choisir soit la marque A (extrême gauche), soit la
marque C (centre) lorsque les cinq marques sont présentées simultanément d’une manière horizontale.
Ainsi, 65% des répondants ont choisi la marque C comme étant la marque la plus éthique tandis que 35%
d’entre eux ont choisi la marque A (p=0,04). Une deuxième analyse binomiale a été faite pour tester la
probabilité des répondants de choisir soit la marque C (centre) soit la marque E (extrême droite). Dans ce
contexte, 74% des répondants ont choisi la marque C comme étant la plus éthique tandis que 26% d’entre
Running Head: CENTRALITÉ ET ÉTHIQUE DE LA MARQUE
eux ont opté pour la marque E (p<0,01). Ainsi, l’hypothèse 2 est confirmée. Pour vérifier l’hypothèse 3,
la même procédure adoptée pour H2 a été utilisée. Il est ressorti que 69% des répondants ont choisi la
marque C située au centre comme la marque la plus éthique tandis que 31% d’entre eux ont opté pour la
marque A présentée au plus haut du planogramme (p=0,02). Puis, une autre analyse binomiale a été
réalisée pour tester la probabilité des répondants de choisir soit la marque C soit la marque E située au
plus bas du planogramme. Dans ce contexte, 64% des répondants ont choisi la marque C comme étant la
marque la plus éthique tandis que 36% d’entre eux ont opté pour la marque E (p=0,07). L’hypothèse 3 est
donc également confirmée.
Discussion
Cette recherche démontre empiriquement 1) le lien existant entre la popularité perçue d’une
marque et la perception reliée à ses comportements pro-sociaux et 2) que les consommateurs perçoivent
l’option placée au centre comme étant plus éthique que celles présentées aux extrémités d’un ensemble
d’alternatives ordonnées simultanément d’une manière horizontale et également verticale. Les résultats de
la présente étude corroborent les résultats de Raghubir et Valenzuela (2006, 2008) ainsi que ceux de
Valenzuela et Raghubir (2009, 2010) en confirmant l’existence d’inférences de la part des consommateurs
en fonction de la présentation et la localisation des produits dans l’étalage.
D’un point de vue théorique, cette recherche contribue significativement à la littérature dans le
domaine du marchandisage. Comme ressorti dans la revue de la littérature, aucun cadre de référence
n’existait dans les recherches passées pour les marques qui souhaitent véhiculer une image positive
concernant leur responsabilité sociale à travers leur localisation sur les étagères. Or, l’éthique est un
élément de différenciation des marques qui est de plus en plus utilisé par les entreprises et investigué dans
la littérature en marketing (Freestone & McGoldrick, 2008 ; Trudel & Cotte, 2009 ; White, MacDonnell,
& Ellard, 2012). Ce point constitue le principal apport théorique de la présente recherche.
Running Head: CENTRALITÉ ET ÉTHIQUE DE LA MARQUE
D’un point de vue managérial, cette recherche a permis de déterminer l’emplacement adéquat sur
les étagères d’un planogramme afin qu’une marque souhaitant occuper un positionnement éthique soit
perçu comme tel par les consommateurs. Le marchandisage ressort encore comme un outil de
différenciation essentiel pour les marques qui va au-delà de l’aspect perceptuel et sensoriel de l’exposition
des marques situées au centre, puisqu’en réalité, il englobe un aspect inférentiel où il est possible de
déduire la perception de l’éthique de la marque grâce à sa localisation sur une étagère.
Running Head: CENTRALITÉ ET ÉTHIQUE DE LA MARQUE
Références
Becker-Olsen, K. L., Cudmore, B. A., & Hill, R. P. (2006). The impact of perceived corporate social
responsibility on consumer behavior, Journal of Business Research, 59(1), 46–53.
Cartwright, D. (1965). Influence, leadership, control, in MARCH (J. G.) (Ed.), Handbook of
Organizations, Rand Mc Nally & Company, Chicago: Rand-McNally.
Freestone, O. M, & McGoldrick P. J. (2008). Motivations of the ethical consumer. Journal of Business
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Gildea, R. L. (1994). Consumer survey confirms corporate social action affects buying decisions. Public
Relations Quarterly, 39(4), 20–21.
Kamins, M. A., Alpert, F. H. & Perner, L. (2003), Consumers' perception and misperception of market
leadership and market pioneership, Journal of Marketing Management, 19, 807-834.
Luchs, M., Naylor, R. W., Irwin, J. R., & Raghunathan, R. (2010). The sustainability liability: Potential
negative effects of ethicality on product preference. Journal of Marketing, 74(septembre), 18-31.
Overbeck, J. R., Tiedens, L. Z., & Brion, S. (2006). The powerful want to, the powerless have to :
Perceived constraint moderates causal attributions. European Journal of Social Psychology, 36,
479-496.
POPAI (2012), Consumer Buying Habits Study, Washington DC: Point Of Purchase Advertising Institute.
Raghubir, P., & Valenzuela, A. (2006). Center-of-inattention: Position biases in decision-making.
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 99(1), 66-80.
Raghubir, P., & Valenzuela, A. (2008). Center of orientation: Effect of vertical and horizontal shelf space
product position, Working paper, Baruch College, City University of New York.
Running Head: CENTRALITÉ ET ÉTHIQUE DE LA MARQUE
Trudel, R., & Cotte, J. (2009). Does it pay to be good?. MIT Sloan Mangement Review, 50 (2), 61-68.
Valenzuela, A., & Raghubir, P. (2009). Position-based schemas : The center-stage effect. Journal of
Consumer Psychology, 19(avril), 185-196.
Valenzuela, A., & Raghubir, P. (2010). Are consumers aware of top-bottom but not of left-right
inferences? Implications for shelf space positions. Working Paper, Marketing Department,
Baruch College, City University of New York, NY.
Valenzuela, A., Raghubir, P., & Mitakakis, K. (2013). Shelf space schemas: Myth or reality?. Journal of
Business Research, 66, 881-888.
White, K., MacDonnell, R., & Ellard, J.H. (2012). Belief in a just world: Consumer intentions and
behaviors toward ethical products. Journal of Marketing, 76(janvier), 103-118.
Running Head: THE DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS OF TRADITIONAL AND TOUCHSCREEN
INTERFACES ON INVOLVEMENT
The Differential Effects of Traditional and Touchscreen Interfaces on Involvement
Ying Zhu, Faculty of Management, University of British Columbia-Okanagan, Canada
Jeffrey Meyer, College of Business, Bowling Green State University, USA
Extended Abstract
While touchscreen technology has existed for 30 years in devices such as ATMs, self-service
kiosks, and point-of-sale terminals, the explosive launch of the touchscreen smartphones in 2007 and
subsequent introduction of touchscreen tablets has reshaped our lives. However, the rapid adoption of
touchscreen technology by consumers has not been accompanied by research in this area. This research
seeks to fill the gap by providing theoretical predictions and empirical evidence on the differential
involvement towards advertising due to the tactile effects of traditional and touchscreen interfaces.
Touch as one of the five senses is of great importance in a consumer’s shopping process.
Consumers acquire information through touching and use the information to form product evaluations
(Peck & Childers, 2003; Grohmann, Spangenberg, & Sprott, 2007). However, different from traditional
touch research, we examine the touch effect on two different interfaces, namely, traditional (e.g., desktop
computer) and touchscreen (e.g., mobile phone, tablet computer). When consumers use touchscreen
devices to perform purchase related tasks, the main focus is neither on sensory feeling acquired nor on
information collected about a product’s material. Instead, touch becomes part of the process that has little
relevance to physically touching the product.
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Running Head: THE DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS OF TRADITIONAL AND TOUCHSCREEN
INTERFACES ON INVOLVEMENT
Thus, we focus on assessing the different involvement levels between traditional and touchscreen
interfaces caused by integrating “touch” as part of the pre-purchase information process. When using a
touchscreen, instead of using the mouse to click on the icons and links on the computer screen, consumers
use their fingers to tap the button and slide among products. The integrated and corresponding movements
allowed and required by the touchscreen interface may arouse more or different sensations than those
brought by the traditional interface.
Our research is interested in consumer involvement towards an advertisement displayed on
traditional versus touchscreen interfaces. We argue that the product involvement toward an advertisement
will differ depending on the interaction between the nature of the product (hedonic versus utilitarian) and
the user interface (traditional versus touchscreen). Support for this argument comes from literature on
cognitive consistency (or “fit”) (Novak and Hoffman, 2009; Milberg et al., 2010). Classic cognitive
consistency theory suggests that inconsistent cognitions result in an inner tension (Heider, 1958;
McGuire, 1966). Using a traditional interface, such as a desktop computer, individuals are already in a
“utilitarian” mode. Thus, when faced with an ad for a utilitarian product, no inconsistency exists.
However, if an individual is using a traditional interface and is presented with an ad for a hedonic
product, an inconsistency exists between the individual’s “utilitarian” mode and the hedonic product.
Thus, to reduce this inconsistency, the individual will attempt to get into a more “hedonic” mode in order
to digest the ad, which requires more effort and more involvement. Similarly, when an individual is using
a touchscreen interface, they are already in a “hedonic” mode, and we expect similar effects based on the
nature of the product. Thus, our first hypothesis posits that an interaction between the interface and the
nature of the product occurs such that personal involvement towards an ad is higher for a hedonic
(utilitarian) product viewed on a traditional (touchscreen) interface.
Emotions and feelings elicited by advertisements and products is an often studied topic in
marketing and advertising. The elaboration-related mechanism theory (Bakalash & Riemer, 2013) says
that higher emotional arousal increases information processing. Higher levels of information processing
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Running Head: THE DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS OF TRADITIONAL AND TOUCHSCREEN
INTERFACES ON INVOLVEMENT
result in higher personal involvement towards the message. While we do not expect a difference in
involvement between touchscreen and traditional interfaces for ads with high message emotion, we do
predict the interface type may have an impact on involvement for low emotion messages. In addition,
because males and females handle emotion very differently (Fisher & Dubé, 2005), we expect gender to
play a moderating role.
Traditional interfaces, such as a desktop computer, are considered more rational, analytical
and logical in their use, whereas touchscreen interfaces are more emotional, sensational, and experiential.
When a man is faced with a low emotion message on a traditional interface, there is a misfit between the
thought required for the message and the expected thought required when using a traditional interface. As
before, this inconsistency is resolved with more effort and involvement. For women, a low emotion
message requires less intuition and less sensation. However, this is in conflict with the sensational and
experiential use of a touchscreen, creating inner tension that is resolved with more effort and involvement
for women. Together, our second hypothesis posits that with a traditional (touchscreen) interface, men
exhibit no difference in involvement (more involvement) for high versus low emotional messages, while
women exhibit more involvement (no difference in involvement) for high versus low emotional messages.
Study 1
In study 1, we tested our first hypothesis using a 2 x 2 between-subjects design with interface
(traditional desktop vs. touchscreen) and nature of the product (utilitarian vs. hedonic) as manipulated
factors. One-hundred undergraduate students were randomly assigned to a traditional desktop interface (n
= 43) or to a handheld touchscreen interface (n = 57). Each respondent was then presented an offer and
subsequently asked questions about the offer. The dependent variable was the Personal Involvement
Inventory for Advertising (PIIA) (Zaichkowky 1994).
As expected, the results support our first hypothesis positing an interaction between interface type
and product nature (F(1,96) = 4.58, p = .035). Neither main effect was significant. In the traditional
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Running Head: THE DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS OF TRADITIONAL AND TOUCHSCREEN
INTERFACES ON INVOLVEMENT
interface condition, involvement was higher for a hedonic than a utilitarian product (Mhed = 49.8 vs. Mutil
= 45.8), whereas in the touchscreen interface condition, personal involvement was higher for a utilitarian
product that a hedonic product (Mhed = 47.0 vs. Mutil = 51.0).
Study 2
In study 2, we tested our second hypothesis using a 2 x 2 x 2 between-subjects design with
interface type (traditional versus touchscreen) and emotion (low versus high) as manipulated factors and
gender as a measured factor. One hundred ninety undergraduate students (50% female; 50% male) were
randomly assigned to the four conditions based on interface and emotion level of the message. The
dependent variable was PIIA as in study 1.
The overall model was significant (F(7,189) = 4.44, p < .001). As expected, the three-way
interaction between interface type, message emotion, and gender was significant (F(1,189) = 10.81, p =
.001). The main effect of emotion was significant (F(1,189) = 15.77, p < .001), while the two-way
interaction between gender and equipment was marginally significant (F(1,189) = 2.75, p = .099).
Overall, these results support our hypothesis that the interaction between the interface type and the
emotion level of a message differs by gender
General Discussion
The current research advances knowledge in the area of sensory marketing, especially tactile
literature. Traditional touch research focuses on the evaluation function of touch through using fingers to
assess the surface of products (Peck & Shu, 2009). In the context of a touchscreen interface, however, the
function of touch is not to evaluate the material of the product per se. Instead, the touching performed by
the fingers actually replaces traditional, extra tools (e.g., the mouse or physical keyboard) that are
normally used to complete the necessary pre-purchase (e.g., information search) and purchase tasks. By
more directly integrating part of the body (e.g., fingers) in the shopping process, consumer involvement in
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Running Head: THE DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS OF TRADITIONAL AND TOUCHSCREEN
INTERFACES ON INVOLVEMENT
the task differs. This research addresses the gap in tactile research by hypothesizing and testing the
different tactile effects between traditional and touchscreen interfaces on the consumer’s pre-purchase
stage, specifically, on processing advertisement information and the level of personal involvement
towards the advertisement. Drawing on cognitive consistency theory, we observe that the tactile effect of
a traditional interface has a better “fit” with a utilitarian product, while a touchscreen interface has a better
“fit” with a hedonic product. In both cases, the level of involvement is low. However, when a lack of “fit”
exists, the level of involvement is high. In addition, we found the level of involvement towards a low
emotional message displayed on different interfaces varies across gender.
Our findings offer several broad managerial insights. Given companies increasingly using multichannel marketing, advertisements are now distributed not only through website and email on traditional
interfaces, but also pushed to consumers’ mobile devices. Based on our results, consumers are more
involved in processing the advertising of hedonic products when working on a desktop computer and
more motivated to process the information of utilitarian product on a touchscreen device. Thus, managers
need to have a solid understanding of both the nature of their product and what type of device the
message is most likely to be viewed on. Similarly, when a marketing program is targeting a certain
gender, managers must consider the different tactile effects of traditional and touchscreen interfaces
depending on the emotional appeal of the message.
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INTERFACES ON INVOLVEMENT
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218
Running Head: IMPACT OF VALUE ADDED BY THE FRONTLINE EMPLOYEES ON
CUSTOMER LOYALTY
Impact of Value Added by the Frontline Employees on Customer Loyalty
Said Echchakoui, Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue, Canada
Abstract
Drawing on the Stimulus-Organism-Response (S-O-R) model, this paper investigating the
mediated role of value added by frontline employees. A quantitative study and a multilevel modeling
approach were used. The empirical results showed that the three added value dimensions partially
mediated the relationship between frontline employee credibility and customer loyalty.
Keywords: Service encounter; frontline employee; employee-customer interaction; value added by the
frontline employee; customer loyalty.
Running Head: THE DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS OF TRADITIONAL AND TOUCHSCREEN
INTERFACES ON INVOLVEMENT
Customer loyalty has been widely accepted as an important issue for many marketing managers. It
has also been the subject of many researchers (Jacoby and Chestnut, 1978; Dick and Basu, 1994;
Zeithaml et al., 1996; Oliver, 1999; Palmatier et al., 2007). Attracting and retaining loyal customers can
lead to many firm advantages, such as greater revenues (Reichheld, 1996), larger sales and increased
customer share (Reichheld and Teal 1996; Zeithaml et al., 1996), and superior financial performance
(Palmatier et al., 2007). Given the importance of customer value in the marketing literature, several
researchers (e.g., Palmatier et al., 2007) have studied the value perceived by the customer as a predictor of
customer loyalty. These studies found a significant relationship between these concepts. Their studies
have operationalized value received by a customer as a firm value communicated by the frontline
employee. In parallel with an increased focus on communicated value, some researchers have started to
investigate the role of the frontline employee in the value creation process, especially in the sales force
literature. The primary argument underlying this interest is that the sales force not only communicates a
firm’s value, but can also create it (Rackham and De Vincentis, 1999). This critical role of the frontline
employee in value creation has recently been noted by Blocker et al. (2012) in terms of relationship
marketing.
Despite a rich body of literature concerning the frontline role employees play in shaping customers’
service evaluations (Bitner, Booms, and Tetreault 1990; Hartline and Ferrell 1996; Price, Arnould, and
Tierney 1995) and customer loyalty (e.g., Wieseke et al., 2012), the researches of the impacts of value
added by this employee’s type on customer behavior are limited. More specifically, to the best of our
knowledge, empirical investigations of the value added by the frontline employees on customer loyalty in
service encounters are absent.
Based on the Stimulus-Organism-Response (S-O-R) framework developed by Mehrabian and
Russell (1974), the present study aims to reduce this gap. Specifically, this research intends to contribute
to service research by investigating the mediator's role of the value added by the frontline employee in the
relationship between employee attributes and customer loyalty in the service context. This research
intends to make four main contributions to the literature. First, it links frontline employee assets with the
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S-O-R theory. Second, it empirically examines the importance of the value added by the frontline
employee to his role as a generator of value for both the buyer and the seller, as predicted by several
researchers (e.g., Blocker et al., 2012; Haas et al., 2012). Third, in considering different types of value,
this study explores how value added by the frontline employee drives customer loyalty. Finally, as
encouraged by Palmatier et al. (2007), the results from this research will help to explain the role of
frontline employee attributes as the determinant of customer-perceived value and customer behaviour.
The reminder of the paper proceeds as follows. In the literature review section, we first introduce
our theoretical framework and explicate value added by frontline employee, employee attributes and
customer loyalty as our focal constructs. We then develop hypotheses regarding the mediating effects of
value added employee in the relationship between employee attributes and customer loyalty. Next, we
present methodological aspects of the empirical and results. Finally, we discuss the practical implications
of the results, including research perspectives for service research.
Theoretical framework and mains concepts
Value added by the frontline employees
Of the numerous definitions of perceived value, the definition introduced by of Zeithmal (1998) is
one of the most widely accepted. She defined value as a trade-off between benefits and sacrifices
associated with a supplier’s offering, as perceived by the consumer (Zeithmal, 1988; Ravald and
Grönroos, 1996; Woodruff, 1997; McDougall and Levesque, 2000). Hence, in this study, perceived value
added by the frontline employee can be designed as a result of the customer’s evaluation of the expected
benefits added by the frontline employee plus and the perceived risk reduced by the frontline employee.
In the literature, most scholars (e.g., Babin et al., 1994; Park, 2004) conceptualize perceived benefits
according to two dimensions – utilitarian/functional value and hedonic/non-functional value. Grönroos
(1997) calls these dimensions cognitive and emotional value. Cognitive refers to utilitarian value, and
emotional to hedonic value. Utilitarian value is described as efficient and economic-seeking (Overby and
Lee, 2006), while hedonic value is associated with pleasure-seeking (Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982;
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Higgins, 1997, 2001; Chernev, 2004). In the service context, the utilitarian value added by a frontline
employee can be described as the degree to which a frontline employee allows his customers to be
efficient and make economic deals. The hedonic value added by a frontline employee can refer to the
pleasure felt by the customer during his interactions with the frontline employee. Perceived sacrifice
includes all of the customer’s costs when making a deal with the frontline employee, such as monetary
price and non-monetary price (e.g. time spent, risk, convenience and physical effort).
Customer loyalty
In the literature, customer loyalty does not have a universally accepted definition. Grisaffe (2001)
stated that it was a little agreement on what customer loyalty research and how to measure it. In this
study, we were drawing on Oliver’s (1997) brand loyalty, which is widely accepted in the literature
service. According to Oliver (1997), brand loyalty refers to the customer’s predisposition to be loyal to a
brand, which is demonstrated by his intention to buy this brand as a primary choice. Our choice was
motived by two raisons. First, this definition has been used by several researchers (e.g., Reynolds and
Arnold, 2000; Yoo, et al., 2000) in the service setting. Second, in this study we focus on customer loyalty
to a frontline employee which can be defined like customer loyalty to a brand. Therefore, consistent with
Oliver (1997), we define customer loyalty to a frontline employee as to the customer’s predisposition to
be loyal to a frontline employee, which is demonstrated by his intention to buy from this frontline
employee as a primary choice.
Frontline employee attributes
Frontline employee attributes can be defined as features of the frontline employee that may
significantly influence customer behavior. In the literature, many frontline employees’ attributes, or
combinations of attributes, have been identified by researchers in relation to identifying the characteristics
of successful frontline employee, or the determinants of his performance. For example, Lamont and
Lundstrom (1977) linked frontline employee traits (e.g., empathy, dominance) to managerial ratings of
frontline employee performance. Bush et al. (1990) developed a 22-item behavioral scale to evaluate in-
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store salespeople. The attributes identified to to date have mainly been evaluated by sales managers or
salespeople (self-evaluation); however, few scholars in the sales force literature have focused on attributes
as evaluated by customers. Liu and Leach (2001) asked customers to evaluate the perceived credibility
(expertise and trustworthiness) of a salesperson; likewise, Darian et al. (2001) used the concept of
“perceived frontline employee service attributes” (e.g., knowledge) in the context of retailing. This study
retains frontline employee credibility perceived by customers as the primary component of frontline
employee attributes. This choice is motived by two main reasons. First, in the area of communicators, or
spokespersons, credibility has been the focus of a significant amount of research (e.g., Ohanian, 1990,
1991; Lafferty et al., 2002; Clow et al., 2006; Avinash, 2010), and frontline employees can be considered
firms’ communicators or spokespersons. Second, source credibility has been found to be an important
antecedent to consumer attitude (Liu and Leach, 2001; Lafferty and Goldsmith, 1999; Lafferty et al.,
2002).
Theoretical framework
In order to investigate how a frontline employee’s value added influence customer loyalty, this
study applied the S-O-R framework developed by Mehrabian and Russell (1974). The framework
describes mechanisms for how environmental elements influence behaviors (see Figure 1). The basic
concept of the S-O-R framework is that when a person (e.g., a consumer) is exposed to a stimulus (S), he
develops internal states or an organism response (O), which in turn dictates his behavioral responses
(Mehrabian and Russell, 1974). Specifically, this model posits that the relationship between stimulus and
behavioural response is mediated by the organism (Figure 1).
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Figure 1.
Conceptual model research based on S-O-R model
To our knowledge, the S-O-R model has extensively used to explore consumer responses to
different marketing objects, but not applied for the frontline employee context. The model has been
applied to retail and product marketing research (e.g., Donovan and Rossiter, 1982; Baker et al., 2002;
Eroglu et al., 2003) in order to explain how marketing cues (e.g., store atmospheres, product attributes)
affect consumer behaviors. In the following paragraphs, we discuss each dimension of S-O-R from the
perspective of the frontline employee-customer relationship.
Stimulus has been conceptualized as something that incites action (Bagozzi, 1980). In a retailing
context, numerous store environment stimuli have been highlighted in the literature, such as music,
employees, product or brand cues, and other shoppers. Some researchers have proposed certain
dimensions of store environment cues. For example, Baker (1987) classified environmental components
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into ambient factors, design factors, and social factors. In the context of the customer-employee
interaction, we focus on social cues or human factors, and we retain frontline employee attributes as a
social cue. Many reasons can be cited to support our choice. First, as specified by Bitner (1992), social
cue focus on the people (e.g., frontline employee) that are in the customer environment. Second, many
researchers (e.g., Semeijn et al., 2003; Jang and Namkung, 2009) have identified product attributes and
the role of these as a stimulus in consumers’ responses. Thus, like product attributes, frontline employee
attributes can be used as a stimulus in the S-O-R model. Finally, the importance of frontline employee
attributes in customer evaluation has been noted in several studies within the sales force literature. For
example, Churchill et al. (1997) described a salesperson’s presentation skills as an important source of his
success.
Organism entails the “internal processes and structures intervening between stimuli external to the
person and the final actions, reactions, or responses emitted” (Bagozzi, 1986, p. 46). In this study, we
retain value added by frontline employees as a dimension of organism. Two reasons justified this choice.
First, in marketing, the role of customer value on consumer behavior has been highlighted by many
scholars (Reichheld, 1994; Holbrook, 1996; Woodruff, 1997). Second, within S-O-R-based research,
some components of value have been studied as dimensions of the organism, such as price (Baker et al.,
2002), service quality (e.g., Bellizzi et al., 1983), and perceived risk (e.g., Forsythe and Shi, 2003).
Response is associated with psychological reactions, such as attitudes and behaviors, and reflects
the final reaction toward a stimulus (Bagozzi, 1986). Scholars have suggested different dimensions of
individual response, such as work performance (Mehrabian and Russell, 1974), number of items
purchased (Sherman and Smith, 1986), amount of money spent in the store (Donovan and Rossiter, 1982;
Sherman and Smith, 1986; Turley and Milliman, 2000), satisfaction (Turley and Milliman, 2000), desire
to affiliate with sales personnel (Éthier, 2002), and consumer patronage intentions (Baker et al., 2002). In
the context of service context, we consider consumer loyalty as a consumer response because it is an
important issue for many marketing managers.
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Conceptual model and hypotheses
In the literature, many components of utilitarian value have been cited, such as product and service
quality (Woodruff, 1997; Sanchez et al., 2006), economic value (Anderson, 1993), and relational value
(Wilson et al., 1995; Ulaga, 2003). In this study, we retain economic value for two reasons. First, it has
been considered by several scholars (e.g., Mathwick et al., 2001) as a main component of an experiential
value scale. Second, it refers to trade-offs between quality and cost, which represent an important attribute
of customer choice. Liu’s (2006) defined economic value as the buyer’s assessment of all vendor benefits
and costs, relative to alternative suppliers. Consistent with Liu (2006), we define the economic value
added to a customer by a frontline employee as the customer’s perception that the frontline employee
offers a solution that increases his or her benefits or reduces his or her costs, compared with the
competitor’s frontline employee. We retain also enjoyable interaction as the hedonic component for two
reasons. First, enjoyment has been considered as a main component of an experiential value scale (e.g.,
Mathwick et al., 2001). Second, Gremler and Gwinner (2000) emphasized enjoyable interaction as an
important aspect of rapport, which is prominent in service interactions. Specifically, based on the
literature and in-depth interviews with consumers and service providers, Gremler and Gwinner (2000)
stated that an enjoyable interaction is an important facet of rapport. They defined this concept as “an
affect-laden, cognitive evaluation of one’s exchange with a contact employee” (Gremler and Gwinner,
2000, p. 91). Similarly, we define the enjoyment interaction value added by the frontline employee as an
affect-laden experience that is perceived by the customer in his or her relationship with the frontline
employee. This affect-laden experience appears as an emotionally charged state (e.g., joy, happiness, fun,
amusement).
Several researchers have considered the risk as a unique sacrifice. For example, Palmatier et al.
(2007) argued that managers need to effectively manage the benefit–risk trade-off. Likewise, Forsythe et
al. (2006) interpreted perceived value as perceived benefit versus perceived risk. So, in this study, we
only retain perceived risk as a component of customer perceived sacrifice. For Horton (1976), perceived
risk is the consumer’s expectation of loss. Consistent with this latter definition, we designate the risk
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reduced by the frontline employee as the customer’s expectation that dealing with the frontline employee
will reduce his losses.
The source-credibility model proposed by Hovland et al. in 1953 concluded that two factors –
expertise and trustworthiness – underscore the concept of source credibility. This model has been strongly
supported by several researchers (e.g., Ohanian, 1990). A third dimension, attractiveness, has been
proposed as another important component of source credibility by other scholars (e.g., Ohanian, 1990).
For the present research, attractiveness was not used in hypothesized dimensions of frontline employee
attributes. The main reason for this is that attractiveness is mostly associated with physical attributes, and
several researchers (e.g., Holahan and Stephan, 1981) have posited that it does not always enhance
attitude and purchase intention. Hovland et al. (1953) defined expertise as “the extent to which a
communicator is perceived to be a source of valid assertions” (p. 21). Trustworthiness refers to the
consumer’s confidence in the source for giving information in an honest and objective manner (Ohanian,
1991).
Credibility effect on customer’s perceived value added by a frontline employee
Research examining the relationship between frontline employee perception and value added by a
frontline employee is very limited. Liu and Leach (2001) found the more highly an industrial customer
perceives the salesperson’s level of expertise, the more he perceives received value. Specifically, Liu and
Leach (2001) argued that expertise is the primary mechanism by which a frontline employee adds value to
the customer. Teas and Agarwal (2000) showed that perceived quality is positively related to value.
Naylor and Frank (2000) stated that sales force responsiveness has a positive impact on consumers’
perceptions of value, particularly in terms of time benefits. Further, in the management literature,
researchers (e.g., Youndt and Snell, 2004) have suggested that a positive perception of an employee (e.g.,
a frontline employee) has a positive impact on the customer’s perception of firm benefits. For example, if
the customer perceives a frontline employee as a product expert, and someone who understands his needs
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well, he probably perceives the frontline employee as the most appropriate person to recommend him the
most economical product. Thus, given these studies, we posit the following hypotheses:
H1. Frontline employee credibility has a positive effect on the customer’s perception of economic
value.
H11. Frontline employee expertise has a positive effect on the customer’s perception of economic
value.
H12. Frontline employee trustworthiness has a positive effect on the customer’s perception of
economic value.
According to Mallalieu and Nakamoto (2008), a high-quality interaction between an employee and
a customer can induce in the customer an emotional state characterized by joy, excitement, optimism and
hope. Based on Mehrabian and Russell’s (1974) model, Bell (1999) demonstrated that a positive image
creates a higher level of pleasurable feeling in customers and reflects their enjoyment of spending time in
a shopping venue. Specifically, the customer’s perception of frontline employee attributes (service
knowledge, attitude and friendliness) in the retail context positively influences his or her store’s affect
(Bell, 1999). Likewise, Bitner (1992) argued that the retailer’s image can generate emotions in
consumers. In addition, based on the S-O-R model, Sherman et al. (1997) showed that social factors (e.g.,
employee perception) stimulate higher levels of pleasurable feelings in customers. From these researches,
we postulate that:
H2. Frontline employee credibility has a positive effect on the customer’s perception of enjoyable
interaction.
H21. Frontline employee expertise has a positive effect on the customer’s perception of enjoyable
interaction.
H22. Frontline employee trustworthiness has a positive effect on the customer’s perception of
enjoyable interaction.
To our knowledge, no study to date has examined the relationship between frontline employee
attributes and the customer’s risk perception. In brand management, both theory and empirical evidence
support the fact that a brand can reduce consumers’ risk perceptions (e.g., Montgomery, 1975). For
example, Montgomery (1975) argued that brand image is negatively associated with the risk of
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performance perceived by a consumer. Dowling and Staelin (1994) showed that consumers may feel more
confident with a well-known brand than with a generic product class. Finally, Berthon et al. (1999)
argued that a brand reduces the consumers’ perceived risks. Thus, given these studies, we posit that if a
customer perceives a frontline employee as credible, he will be more confident in the frontline
employee’s offer or solution, and so his perceived risk will be reduced. As a result, this study
hypothesizes that:
H3. Frontline employee credibility has a positive effect on the customer’s perception of risk.
H31. Frontline employee expertise has a positive effect on the customer’s perception of risk.
H32. Frontline employee trustworthiness has a positive effect on the customer’s perception of risk.
Value added by frontline employee effect on customer loyalty
Previous research has shown that perceived value has a positive impact on customer loyalty. For
example, Lai et al. (2009) found that perceived value is an important predictor of customer loyalty.
Likewise, Spiteri and Dion (2004) indicated that customer-perceived value is positively associated with
loyalty behavior. Rust et al. (1995) stated that perceived customer value was an effective predictor of
customer loyalty. Finally, in the sales force context, Palmatier et al. (2007) illustrated that the value
received by the customer positively affects salesperson-owned loyalty. Therefore, we posit that:
H4. Economic value added by a frontline employee positively affects customer loyalty.
A number of studies have indicated that relational- and rapport-building activities positively affect
loyalty in business relationships (e.g., Crosby et al., 1990; Morgan and Hunt 1994; Paul et al. 2009).
Further, Gremier and Gwinner’s (2000) study reported that enjoyable interaction was one of the two
components of rapport building, and that this component affects positively the buyer’s loyalty to the
service provider. Thus, we hypothesize that:
H5. Enjoyable interaction value added by a frontline employee positively affects customer loyalty.
If a frontline employee reduces the risk perceived by his customer, he will also reduce the
customer’s sacrifice and in turn increase a customer-perceived value. Thus, based on previous researches
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(e.g., Rust et al., 1995; Spiteri and Dion, 2004; Lai et al., 2009) which shown the perceived value has a
positive impact on customer loyalty, we can argue that the lower the customer-perceived risk, the higher
customer loyalty will be. In this regard, Mittal and Lee (1989) indicated that brand loyalty is associated
with customer risk perception. Therefore, we postulate that:
H6. Risk reduced by a frontline employee positively affects customer loyalty.
Mediating role of value added by a frontline employee
More recently, a study conducted by Newell et al. (2011) revealed that salesperson trustworthiness
positively affected buyer perceptions of relationship loyalty. Likewise, Morgan and Hunt (1994) posited
that trust is a major determinant of relationship commitment. Additionally, in the brand management
literature, Chaudhuri and Holbrook (2001) indicated that brand trust has a positive impact on customer
loyalty. Thus, based on the previous literature, we can deduce that frontline employee credibility has a
positive impact on customer loyalty.
Mehrabian and Russell’s (1974) S-O-R model posits that the organism (O) meditates the
relationship between stimulus (S) and response (R). This mediating role of the organism has been
confirmed in several studies. For instance, Sherman et al. (1997) demonstrated the mediating role of
consumer emotions in the relation between store environment, and consumer purchase behavior. Thus,
from the above discussion, we conclude that:
H7: Value added by the frontline employee mediates the relationship between frontline employee
credibility (expertise and trustworthiness) and customer loyalty.
H71: Economic value mediates the relationship between frontline employee credibility and customer
loyalty.
H72: Enjoyable interaction mediates the relationship between frontline employee credibility and
customer loyalty.
H73: Risk reduced mediates the relationship between frontline employee and customer loyalty.
Methodology
Data collection
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To ensure sufficient internal validity, we targeted only one industry. The industry was selected
based on two criteria (Palmatier et al., 2007): 1) the importance given to the frontline employee in the
business with respect to the brand or product, and 2) the presence of competition. According to Palmatier
et al. (2007), in order to properly test hypotheses about the customer–frontline employee relationship, it is
important to choose an industry in which the effect of the brand (e.g., brand loyalty) and the effect of
advertising are negligible to the frontline employee’s role during the customer’s buying process.
Similarly, the presence of competition is an prominent criterion to highlight the attributes that influence
customers to choose between the frontline employee’s offers.
Several industries meet these two criteria, including the retail industry and the insurance industry
(Palmatier et al., 2007). For this research, we chose the banking industry, specifically the financial sector.
Our choice of the financial sector was entirely appropriate for two reasons. First, financial institutions
(including banks) offer financial products that are roughly similar. Second, financial advisors are frontline
employees who sell financial products based primarily on their own efforts.
In order to collect the data for the current study, customers of personal-finance advisors for five
bank agencies in Canada were surveyed. All the finance advisors of these agencies were selected to
participate in the study. For each of the 40 financial advisors, we randomly selected 30 customers. A total
of 1320 questionnaires were distributed to the selected customers. Of those, 280 questionnaires were
returned by mail. A total of 237 usable questionnaires were obtained after conducting a list-wise deletion,
yielding a usable response rate of 18 percent. On average, six responses for each financial advisor, and
about 46 percent of the respondents were women. A total of 31 percent of the respondents were between
55 and 64 years old, and 26 percent were between 45 and 54 years old. In addition, 31.5 percent had some
university education or had a college degree. About 42 percent of the respondents had a high school
education. Furthermore, 93 percent of the respondents had been customers of the banks for a period
exceeding 12 years.
Measurement development
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To develop the questionnaire, existing scales for all five constructs were examined. The scale items
used for this study were measured using five-point Likert-type scales. Frontline employee trustworthiness
(four items) and expertise (three items) measures were taken from a scale developed by Ohanian (1990).
Economic value was measured using four items adapted from Liu (2006). Enjoyable interaction was
measured using six items adapted from Gremler and Gwinner (2000). Risk reduced by a frontline
employee was measured using inversed seven items: a one-item (financial risk) adapted scale based on
work by Grewald et al. (2006), a two-item (financial risk) adapted scale based on work by Agarwal and
Teas (2001), and a four items (performance risk) adapted scale based on work by Kleijnen et al. (2007).
Finally, customer loyalty was measured using two items adapted from Yoo et al. (2000).
Table 1.
Survey items, reliability and validity for measures in the study
Constructs
Expertise
Trustworthiness
Economic value
Reduced risk
Items
X: knowledgeable
X: qualified
X: skilled
X: trustworthy
X: reliable
X: sincere
X: honest
Provides the best value
Provides better value for the money
Provides low quality for the price
(R)
Charges a reasonable price for the
services provided
As I consider transaction with X, I
worry about the product/service will
really perform as well as it supposed
to (R)
The thought of transaction with X
causes me to be concerned for how
really reliable the product/service
will be (R)
If I were to make transaction with X,
I become concerned that the
product/service will not provide the
level of benefits I would be
expecting (R)
The thought of making transaction
with X causes me to be concerned
for how really dependable the
Authors
Ohanian
(1990).
Ohanian
(1990).
Liu
(2006)
Kleijnen
et al.
(2007)

.939
.962
.935
.870
.854
.937
.881
.896
.921
t
45.13
57.12
47.54
18.29
16.41
18.48
16.19
39.40
53.47
.854
24.71
.770
13.96
.884
26.38
.895
32.68
.795
20.89
.842
25.31
α
CR
AVE
.94
.96
.89
.91
.94
.78
.88
.92
.74
.93
.95
.72
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product/service will be (R)
X tries to increase his profit through
hidden or non-transparent costs (R)
Considering the potential investment
involved, for you to purchase from
X would be very risky (R)
I think that the purchase from X
would lead to financial risk (R)
X: Frontline employee.
R: inversed.
Gewald
et al.
(2006)
and
Agarwal
et Teas
(2001).
.788
16.54
.852
23.13
.864
22.36
Table 1.
Survey items, reliability and validity for measures in the study
Constructs
Enjoyable
interaction
Customer
loyalty
Items
Authors
In thinking about my relationship
with this person, I enjoy interacting
with this X
This X creates a feeling of
“warmth” in our relationship
This X relates well to me
In thinking about my relationship, I
have a harmonious relationship with
X
This X had a good sense of humor
I am comfortable interacting with
this X
I consider myself loyal to X.
It makes sense to buy from X
instead of any X’s offer, even if
they are the same.
Gremler
and
Gwinner,
(2000)
Yoo, et
al.
(2000).

t
.874
18.61
.924
24.54
.879
26.13
.909
20.71
.856
18.86
.881
38.01
.735
14.91
.863
27.70
α
CR
AVE
.93
.95
.78
.91
.94
.85
FIT:
2: 656.73; 2/df: 2.31; p: .00.
IFI: .934; CFI: .934; TLI: .924; RMSEA: .075.
X: Frontline employee.
Results
Measurement validation
As recommended by Anderson and Gerbing (1988), we developed a measurement model before
estimating the structural paths to test the hypothesized relationships between the constructs.
Unidimensionality was assessed prior to examining reliability and validity (Hair et al., 1995); to this end,
all independent and dependent variables were analyzed using varimax rotation, taking three criteria into
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consideration: 1) all items with a lower community under .5 would be eliminated; 2) the factors extracted
were those with a value higher than 1; and 3) the Cronbach’s alpha values exceeded the minimum
acceptable values, at .7. The results illustrate that all the constructs are unidimensional, including risk
reduced by a frontline employee. Specifically, our factorial analysis showed that financial risk and
performance risk were grouped into one factor. As Table 1 reports, all items showed significant loading
with the corresponding constructs, wherein the lowest  was .74 (> .5), and the lowest t-value was 13.96
(> 1.96).
The confirmatory factor analysis conducted using the AMOS 19.0 program showed the following
statistics regarding the model fit index of the tested model: chi-square value (χ2 = 656.73, χ2/df = 2.31, pvalue = .00), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI = .924), comparative fit index (CFI = .934) and root mean square
error of approximation (RMSEA = .075). Values of .90 and above are recommended for CFI and TLI, and
values of .08 are recommended for RMSEA (Browne and Cudeck, 1993; Hu and Bentler, 1995).
Therefore, the results of the confirmatory analysis indicated an acceptable fit of the measuring model.
Fornell and Larcker’s (1981) procedures were followed to evaluate convergent and discriminant
validity. Convergent validity is established if the average variance extracted (AVE) for each factor
accounts for .50 or more of the total variance. As shown in Table 1, the AVE for the factors was as
follows: .89 for frontline employee expertise, .78 frontline employee trustworthiness, .74 for economic
value, .72 for perceived risk, .78 for enjoyable interaction and .85 for loyalty. Overall, convergent validity
was confirmed for each dimension. Moreover, Anderson and Gerbing (1988) noted that convergent
validity is demonstrated by statistically significant path coefficients. In this study, all coefficients were
significant at the p < .05 level.
The study then assessed the discriminant validity of the key constructs using the procedures
recommended by Fornell and Larker (1981). This consisted of checking whether the square roots of the
AVE values were consistently greater than all corresponding correlations, as shown in Table 2. As
reported in Table 2, the analysis showed that each construct shared more variance with its corresponding
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measures than with other constructs in the model. Therefore, all constructs revealed acceptable
discriminant validity.
Table 2.
Correlation and discriminant validity
Mean SD
1
2
3
4
5
6
4.52 .69 (.94)
Expertise
4.60 .63 .743** (.88)
Trustworthiness
3.99 .92 .647** .638** (.86)
Economic value
Enjoyable interaction 3.21 .88 .587** .622** .649** (.85)
4.19 .92 .474** .497** .569** .452** (.88)
Reduced risk
4.27 .86 .639** .619** .759** .624** .467** (.92)
Customer loyalty
Diagonal entries show the square roots of average variance extracted, others represent correlation
coefficients.
**. Correlation is significant at the .01 level; *. Correlation is significant at the .05 level.
Structural model
Hierarchical linear model (HLM) was used to estimate main and mediating effects. HLM models
are generally recommended when working with grouped data (Krull and MacKinnon, 1999; Nash et
al.,2004). Conducting a single-level analysis in this context is inappropriate because it is likely to result in
downwardly biased standard errors and increase the probability of making a Type I error (Krull and
MacKinnon, 2001). In addition, ignoring the effects of clustering violates the assumption of uncorrelated
or independent error. Hierarchical linear model (HLM) is a statistical technique focusing on the nature of
nested sets (Bryk and Raudenbush, 1992). This model can simultaneously examine effects of both
individual and group level variables on an individual-level outcome. HLM uses Maximum Likelihood
Estimates (MLE) to run regression models for each group by estimating its own intercept and its own
slope (Raudenbush and Bryk, 2002). Therefore, HLM takes into consideration variation not only in the
intercept but also in the slope estimates for each group.
Prior to conducting the HLM analyses associated with the primary research questions of this study,
the HLM null model without explanatory variables was established to calculate the intraclass correlation
coefficient (ICC) for each dependent variable. In a two-level model, this coefficient is typically estimated
by dividing the level 2 variance component by the sum of the level 1 and level 2 variance components
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(i.e., ICC = τ2 /(σ2+ τ2)) . The level 2 (group-level) variance component (τ2) represents the between-group
variability, and the level 1 (residual) variance component (σ 2) represents the within-group variability.
Unconditional random intercept models with the analytic sample were estimated, to obtain two different
ICC estimates. In addition to ICC, we were estimated the LR ratio test statistic which informs us if the
random slopes improved the fit. For this analysis, we used a multilevel path model, using Stata 13. The
result for this analysis presented in Table 3. This table showed the estimated ICC were 9.1% for customer
loyalty and 8.3% for risk reduced by a frontline employee. The LR test for these two ICC was significant
showing different “individual customer loyalty and perceived risk reduced” in each group customersfrontline employee. In contrast, Table 3 showed that ICC for economic value and enjoyable interaction
(ICC = .8% and ICC = 0 %) was very small and not significant. So, these indicators revealed that the
variances between customers-frontline employee groups were not different from zero for two dependent
variables  economic value and enjoyable interaction.
Table 3.
HLM null models analysis results for dependents variables
Customer
loyalty
Economic
value
Risk reduced
Enjoyable
interaction
b: standard error
Variance
(intercept)
.060
(.037)b
.006
(.027)
.061
(.045)
2.91e-11
(1.88e-10)
Variance
(residual)
.598
(.040)
.740
(.075)
.672
(.070)
1.082
(.102)
ICC
LR test vs. linear regression
Sig.
2
9.1%
4.91
.013
.8%
.05
.412
8.3%
3.07
.039
0%
.00
1.000
According to Zyzanski et al. (2004), the small ICC levels of 5% are high enough to warrant
multilevel methods. So, HLM was adopted for testing main was used to estimate main and mediating
effects because two of dependent variables (customer loyalty and risk reduced) have their ICC greater
than 5% (9.1% and 8.3%).
Main effects of Credibility on customer’s perceived value added by a frontline employee
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Hypothesis 1 posits that frontline employee perceived credibility positively affects customer’s
perceived economic value added by a frontline employee. Specifically, hypotheses H11 and H12 state that
the economic value added by the frontline employee to his customer will be positively influenced by his
perceived expertise and trustworthiness. The results reported in Table 4 showed that these hypotheses
were supported. Specifically, Table 4 indicates that frontline employee expertise is positively related to
economic value (γ10 = .455; t = 4.74, p < .001), and frontline employee trustworthiness has a positive
impact on economic value γ20 = .540; t = 5.21, p < .001). Thus, as expected, our results support H11 and
H12. Therefore, hypothesis H1 was supported.
The results reported in Table 4 showed that both frontline employee expertise and trustworthiness
have a positive effect on the enjoyable interaction perceived by the customer (γ 20= .489; t = 4.15, p < .05;
γ20= .682; t = 5.36, p < .001). Thus, as expected, our results support H 21 and H22, which in turn support
hypothesis H2.
Table 4.
Main affects tests with HLM analysis
Economic value
Fixed effects
Intercept
γ00
Expertise
Trustworthiness
Economic value
Enjoyable
interaction
Risk reduced
γ10
γ20
γ30
γ40
Enjoyable
Risk reduced
interaction
γ
SE
γ
SE
γ
SE
-.216
(.362)
.015
(.423)
-.635
(.418)
Between-customers predictors
.455**
(.096)
.489**
(.118) .245*
(.118)
.540**
(.104)
.682
(.127) .444** (.123)
γ50
Intercept
u0j
1.74e-21
Within frontline
rij
.415
employee variance
Notes: **. p < .001, * p < .05.
Random effects
2.61e-24
.625
Customer loyalty
γ
-.392
SE
(.401)
.705**
.544**
(.057)
(.061)
.410**
(.057)
.026
.029
.524
.209
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We posited in hypotheses H31 and H32 that the customer-perceived risk reduced by the frontline
employee will be influenced positively by both frontline employee expertise and trustworthiness. The
results illustrated in Table 4 also supported these hypotheses. Specifically, the impact of frontline
employee expertise on perceived risk was significant (γ30 = .245; t = 2.08, p < .05), and the effect of
frontline employee trustworthiness on perceived risk was greatly significant (γ30 = .444; t = 3.59, p <
.001). Thus, both H31 and H32 are supported.
Main effects of value added by a frontline employee on customer loyalty
Hypotheses H4 to H6 posited that each of the three dimensions of the value added by the frontline
employee affect customer loyalty. The results reported in Table 4 showed that economic value was
positively related to customer loyalty (γ30= .705; t = 12.17, p < .001), Enjoyable interaction has a positive
impact on customer loyalty (γ40 = .544; t = 8.87, p < .001), and risk reduced by a frontline employee has a
positive effect on customer loyalty (γ50 = .410; t = 7.16, p < .05). Thus, as expected, our results support
H4, H5 and H6. Therefore, the value added by the frontline employee significantly affects customer
loyalty.
Mediating effect
This study tested the mediation of each dimension of value added by a frontline employee through
HLM analysis with the slopes allowed to vary randomly between frontline employees. Especially, we
have used Zhang et al.’s (2009) multilevel relationships procedure. As recommended by these authors, we
first centered all the predictors at the customer level. In our study the antecedent, the mediator, and the
outcome are all measured at a lower level of analysis. So, each mediator model analysis (see Figure 2)
corresponds to the 1-1-1 model cited by Zhang et al. (2009). Table 5 presented the reformulation for the
Baron and Kenny’s (1986) procedures in multilevel settings for this model. Following Zhang et al. (2009)
and others (e.g., Kenny et al., 2003; Preacher et al., 2010) we estimated the direct effect (i.e., c'), the
random indirect (i.e., a*b) and the total (i.e., c = a*b + c') for customer i interacting with frontline
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employee j) (see Fig. 2). The model parameters were estimated for all three mediators via the «gsem» and
«nlcom» commands estimators implemented in Stata 13.
Figure 2.
1-1-1 test mediation model example (Expertise  Risk reduced  Customer loyalty)
Note: 1-1-1 Model refers to the model where X, M, and Y were all measured at level 1; ID: frontline
employee group level (level 2).
j = frontline employee.
i = customer.
Table 5.
Baron and Kenny’s (1986)test mediation procedures reformulated in multilevel settings (Krull and
MacKinnon, 2001; Mathieu and Taylor 2007; Zhang et al., 2009).
OLS
Multilevel
Individual Level
Group Level
Equation 1
Individual Level
́
Equation 2
Equation 3
́
́
Group Level
Individual Level
Group Level
́
́
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The model results, displayed in Table 6, showed a significant direct effect of expertise on customer
loyalty (c' = .319, t = 4.86, p < .01), a significant effect of expertise on customer loyalty via economic
value added by a frontline employee (a*b = .245, t = 4.60, p < .01), and a significant total effect of
expertise on customer loyalty (c = .799, t = 12.70, p < .01). Therefore, given the previous finding about
the significant impact of economic value on customer loyalty, this result indicated that the statistical
impact of expertise on customer loyalty was partially mediated by economic value added by a frontline
employee. Table 6 indicated also economic value mediated partially the relationship between
trustworthiness and customer loyalty (c' = .311, t = 4.36, p < .01; a*b = .526, t = 8.58, p < .01; c = .837, t
= 12.10, p < .01). So, hypothesis H71 which posited that economic value mediated the relationship
between frontline employee credibility and customer loyalty was partially supported.
Table 6.
Direct, direct and total effect
c’
Expertise 
Economic value 
Customer loyalty
Expertise 
Enjoyable interaction
 Customer loyalty
Expertise  Risk
reduced  Customer
loyalty
Direct effect
95% conf.
t
Interval
Indirect effect
95% conf.
a*b
t
Interval
c
Total effect
95% conf.
t
Interval
.319** 4.86
.458
.647
.245** 4.60
.141
.349
.799** 12.70 .676
.922
.521** 7.31
.381
.660
.277** 5.71
.182
.372
.797** 12.61 .673
.921
.676** 9.74
.540
.812
.122** 3.36
.051
.194
.799** 12.65 .675
.922
.171
.451
.526** 8.58
.406
647
.837** 12.10 .702
.973
.354
.675
.322** 5.61
.209
.434
.836** 12.01 .700
.973
.552
.859
.133** 3.14
.049
.216
.838** 12.02 .702
.975
Trustworthiness 
.311** 4.36
Economic value 
Customer loyalty
Trustworthiness 
Enjoyable interaction .515** 6.29
 Customer loyalty
Trustworthiness 
.705** 9.01
Risk reduced 
Customer loyalty
Notes: **. p < .001.
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Hypothesis H72 postulated that enjoyable interaction mediates the relationship between frontline
employee credibility (expertise and trustworthiness) and customer loyalty. Results (see Table 6) revealed
that this hypothesis was also partially supported. Indeed, the effect of frontline employee’s perceived
expertise on customer loyalty was partially mediated by enjoyment interaction (c' = .521, t = 7.31, p <
.01; a*b = .277, t = 5.71, p < .01; c = .797, t = 12.61, p < .01). In addition, this latter partially mediated the
relationship between trustworthiness and customer loyalty (c' = .515, t = 6.29, p < .01; a*b = .322, t =
5.61, p < .01; c = .836, t = 12.01, p < .01).
Finally, Table 6 showed that the last dimension of value added by a frontline employee also
mediated partially the relationship between employee credibility and customer loyalty. Results (see Table
6) indicated that expertise effect on customer loyalty was partially mediated by risk reduced by a frontline
employee (c' = .676, t = 9.74, p < .01; a*b = .122, t = 3.36, p < .01; c = .799, t = 12.65, p < .01). As well,
this latter partially mediated the relationship between trustworthiness and customer loyalty (c' = .705, t =
9.01, p < .01; a*b = .133, t = 3.14, p < .01; c = .838, t = 12.02, p < .01). So, H 73 hypothesis was partially
supported.
In sum, our finding revealed that value added by the frontline employee mediated partially the
relationship between frontline employee credibility and customer loyalty. Therefore, H 7 was partially
supported.
Discussion
Consistent with brand management, one of our main purposes in this study was to show that the
frontline employees cannot only communicate product or brand value, but can also add value to the firm
and for the customer. This view is consistent with that of Rackham and De Vincentis (1999), who argued
that salespeople not only communicated value, but must also create it. The results of our data from the
five Canadian financial banks have supported this proposition. This study provides also a useful
knowledge for understanding the source of value added by frontline employees, and how this value may
influence customer loyalty. The results provide empirical evidence to demonstrate that frontline employee
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credibility is a powerful factor that directly influences consumers’ perceptions of value added by the
frontline employee, and that this value in turn affects customer loyalty.
This research identified a significant, strong impact of frontline employee credibility on the value
added by the frontline employee (Figure 1). This finding is consistent with findings in brand management
research (e.g., Aaker, 1991; Aaker, 1997), which have found that brand image or brand personality has a
positive impact on the customer’s perception of value. Our results are also in line with those of
Baumgarth and Lars (2011), who found that a frontline employee does not just explain product features or
negotiate prices, but also shapes brand perceptions. In addition to the two types of extrinsic value
(economic value and risk reduction) that fit with a frontline employee working in the financial sector, we
have retained the enjoyment interaction concept in our model to show that, like a brand, a frontline
employee can also add hedonic value. Our results strongly support this hypothesis, which is consistent
with the views of Brian Dubin (cited in Matthew, 2006), who postulates that any person (e.g., a frontline
employee) possessing intangible assets can be considered a brand. Our findings are also in line with
Gremler and Gwinner (2000), who argued that enjoyable interaction is an important dimension of the
rapport between employees and customers. Finally, this result also extends Blocker et al.’s (2012)
propositions, which highlight the role of the frontline employee in the value creation process, in the sense
that this study describes the type of value that is generated by the frontline employee.
The findings suggest that frontline employee can enhance customers’ perceptions of value by
effectively managing their perceived credibility. This result is in harmony with Liu and Leach (2001),
who identified that frontline employee expertise and trustworthiness are important variables that influence
the relationship between a buyer and a frontline employee. This study extends Liu and Leach’s (2001)
research by providing evidence that expertise and trustworthiness are only two components of frontline
employee attributes. Thus, based on S-O-R, we predict that other attributes can enhance customerperceived value and customer loyalty to the frontline employee. Contrary to our expectations, our data
show that all value added dimensions do not fully mediate the relationship between frontline employee
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redibility and customer loyalty. One possible explanation for this is that others variables have to add to
our models specially others value added dimensions and frontline employee attributes.
Implications
Based on these findings, a number of theoretical and managerial implications can be drawn. From a
theoretical perspective, this research integrates and extends several ideas. First, the nature of the findings
for a service industry validated Palmatier et al.’s (2007) results in a business-to-business context which
highlighted the importance of customer value for customer loyalty to a frontline employee (i.e.,
salesperson). The results also support the general importance of the frontline employee credibly in
relationship marketing, as indicated by Liu and Leach (2001). Additionally, this study has empirically
shown the importance of the value added by the frontline employee in relationship marketing. Therefore,
it confirms the suggestions of several scholars (e.g., Rackham and De Vincentis, 1999; Blocker et al.,
2012; Haas et al., 2012) that the frontline employee cannot only communicated the firm value, but can
add value to customers. Second, our findings confirm that the S-O-R model can be applied to the frontline
employee contribution to the service setting. This framework may help researchers to develop empirical
studies linking stimuli related to the frontline's employees (e.g., reputation) to organism responses related
to the frontline employee or the customer (e.g., frontline employee orientation, customer-perceived
value), and to customer or frontline employee – or even firm – responses (e.g., customer satisfaction,
frontline employee performance, firm financial performance).
From a managerial perspective, this research advocates that managers in service setting should
begin to recognize frontline employees as value creators. This is important because in today’s dynamic
environment, organizations in the service industry face heightened challenges from increased competition
and slowed market growth. Given these conditions, frontline employees have to provide more value for
their customers in order to gain their loyalty. Based on our study findings, we have several suggestions
for these managers. First, it is important to consider that frontline employees not only communicate the
firm’s value to customers, but can also add utilitarian and hedonic value to the customers themselves. To
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maximize this added value, a manager can suggest to a frontline employee to improve their perceived
credibility (expertise, trustworthiness). To evaluate this credibility, this manager can conduct an annual
survey by randomly selecting customers for each frontline employee. The feedback from this survey can
be used to direct and evaluate the frontline employees. It can also be used for program-specific training
and for frontline employees’ compensation. Our results also show that, even in financial context, sales
managers have to advise their frontline employees to focusing on enjoyment interaction in order to
increase customer loyalty.
Limitations and future research directions
Although the results provide general support for the proposed theoretical framework, several
limitations of the research must be considered. First, our data were derived only from frontline employees
in the financial banking sector. Thus, to enhance the external validity, future research efforts can consider
frontline employees in other business settings. It would also be very interesting to validate whether
enjoyable interaction is positively associated with customer loyalty in other sectors. Second, in this study,
frontline employee attributes were measured using frontline employee credibility, which was taken to
consist of only two dimensions. As a result, frontline employee credibility as used in this study does not
reflect all of the frontline employees’ attributes. To provide more global items, future research could use
additional dimensions of frontline employee credibility, such as attractiveness, and more frontline
employee attributes, such as empathy and listening skills. In addition, given the number of dimensions
used in defining the value added by frontline employees in our model, replication with larger dimensions
(e.g., relational value) is a critical area for future research. Further empirical examination could also
include the other type of customer loyalty (e.g., loyalty to the selling firm). Another interesting avenue of
research would be to explore the link between a frontline employee’s added value and the brand value.
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Running Head: A GAME-THEORETIC MODEL FOR CO-PROMOTIONS: CHOOSING A
COMPLEMENTARY VERSUS AND INDEPENDENT PRODUCT ALLY
A Game-Theoretic Model for Co-Promotions: Choosing a Complementary
Versus an Independent Product Ally
Salma Karray, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Canada
Simon-Pierre Sigue, Athabasca University, Canada
Abstract
We study the optimality of partnerships for co-promotions using a game-theoretic model where
prices and promotions are decision variables. Results show that it is optimal to co-promote with
independent allies when complementary product prices greatly impact demand. Partnerships with
complementary allies are more appealing when individual promotions are effective enough.
Keywords: co-promotions; complementary product; joint promotion; game theory; marketing-OR
interface.
Running Head: A GAME-THEORETIC MODEL FOR CO-PROMOTIONS: CHOOSING A
COMPLEMENTARY VERSUS AND INDEPENDENT PRODUCT ALLY
1
Introduction
Increasingly, brand managers pool their marketing resources and capitalize on joint opportunities
to achieve their advertising or/and promotion goals. For example, manufacturers of food products targeted
at children spent an estimated $200 million in 2009 on promotional alliances (US Federal Trade
Commission report 2012). The press relates many examples of such promotions in a variety of industries;
e.g., pharmaceutics (Wall Street Journal 2013), movies (Hollywood Reporter 2010) and the beverage
industry (Advertising Age 2013).
The success of these promotional alliances- also called co-promotions, joint promotions and cross
promotions- depends heavily on the choice of partner and, most importantly, the partner’s ability to add
value to the primary brand (e.g., Geylani et al. 2008, Lee and Shen 2009, Voss and Gammoh 2004).
Consequently, brand managers face a crucial decision in planning joint promotional activities, namely
whether to partner with an ally that sells a complementary product or with one that sells an independent
product (Samu et al. 1999). Two products are complementary when they are used together or when an
increase in demand for one translates into an increase in demand for the other. Examples include razors
and blades, toothbrushes and toothpaste, and so on. On the other hand, products are independent when
their demands are not directly related. Consumers may purchase either one regardless of whether or not
they need the other. For example, when a consumer product teams up with a charitable institution in
cause-related marketing activities, there is no functional relationship between the consumer product and
the activities of their charitable institution partner (Simmons and Becker-Olsen 2006). While the ultimate
goal of most promotional alliances is to grow sales and profits, the conjectures and expectations of
managers of primary brands differ significantly depending on whether the products complement each
other or are independent.
A primary brand alliance with a partner that sells a complementary product first recognizes their
functional synergy. Because consumers require the two products to fully satisfy some specified needs,
efforts to further expand market penetration or development for either one of the two products are likely
to benefit the other product. According to the conventional wisdom, an increase in the price of one of two
Running Head: A GAME-THEORETIC MODEL FOR CO-PROMOTIONS: CHOOSING A
COMPLEMENTARY VERSUS AND INDEPENDENT PRODUCT ALLY
complementary products negatively impacts the demand for both products, while increased promotional
activities have the opposite effect. Horizontal externalities easily arise given that neither of the sellers of
the two complementary products bears the full cost of pricing too high or investing too little in marketing
activities. In such a context, combining marketing resources in a joint promotional program might be
considered an efficiency-enhancing mechanism that helps alleviate some of these horizontal externalities
and thereby provide incentive to the promotional partners to commit resources to market penetration
or/and development for their mutual benefit. For example, Sinitsyn (2012) found that complementary
products that share the same brand name and are produced by the same firm should go on sale at the same
time. Alternatively, empirical research on consumer perceptions and attitudes supports the view that
brand awareness is high when complementary products form promotional alliances. The rationale is that,
because consumers have a ready explanation for the promotional alliance, they have a propensity to
positively evaluate the jointly promoted products (Samu et al. 1999).
On the other hand, there are no explicit horizontal externalities associated with independent
products. Theoretically, marketing activities for individual products have no direct effect on another
product’s demand and payoff. However, independent products do partner via various forms of
promotional associations to achieve different goals (Varadarajan 1986). Such partnership may be
desirable when the primary brand aims to increase consumer exposure by distributing through new
channels, capitalize on the distinctive strengths of an ally, promote new uses that are not known to
consumers, promote trial use among new customers, broaden the user base through association with
products with a huge level of market penetration, or signal a desired level of quality to the market that
would be hard to achieve without a strong ally (Rao et al. 1999, Varadarajan 1986). In addition,
partnering a primary brand with an independent ally is known to engage consumers in higher cognitive
effort and to increase belief accessibility for the primary brand (Samu et al. 1999). This is due to the
observation that consumers engage in more mental processing of the brands’ attributes when they don’t
find an obvious link between two promotional partners. However, promotional alliances between
independent products can have negative effects. These include unbalanced customer response to the joint
Running Head: A GAME-THEORETIC MODEL FOR CO-PROMOTIONS: CHOOSING A
COMPLEMENTARY VERSUS AND INDEPENDENT PRODUCT ALLY
promotion, which makes it beneficial to only one of the partners; and brand dilution, which occurs when
the stature of one brand is lowered in the minds of consumers as a result of an association with another
brand (Leen and Shen 2009, Simmons and Becker-Olsen 2006).
Despite the associated risks and fundamental theoretical differences, the popularity of
promotional alliances between complementary as well as independent products in the marketplace raises
two intriguing questions that the current marketing literature does not comprehensively address. Is it
always beneficial for a primary brand to engage in a promotional alliance with a complementary or an
independent product? Under what conditions should a primary brand prefer an alliance with a
complementary product to an alliance with independent product, and vice versa? The answers to these
questions should provide scholars and managers with a better understanding of the effects of promotional
alliances on marketing decisions and profits, as well as offer managers a decision-making framework or
useful guidelines to improve the effectiveness of their promotional activities. Almost three decades ago,
Varadarajan (1986) stressed the need for such normative guidelines to enhance the productivity of
promotional alliances, but this call has been overlooked in the analytical marketing literature.
This paper uses a formal game theory approach to answer the two questions raised above. We
consider an arrangement where three companies are selling three different products in a given market.
Two of these products are complements (e.g., toothbrushes and toothpaste) and the third product is
independent from the first two (e.g., shampoo). One of the complementary products is the primary brand,
and is considering the possibility of undertaking a joint promotional program with either the other
complementary product or the independent product. We build three different models to account for the
various strategic situations that may occur among the three firms. In the first model, the firms market their
products separately and do not enter into a promotional alliance. In the second model, the primary brand
undertakes a joint promotional program with the firm selling the complementary product, while in the
third model the primary brand’s joint promotional program involves the independent product exclusively.
The firms play a Nash game in each of these three scenarios to determine the optimal pricing, individual
promotional efforts, and joint promotional efforts (Models 2 and 3) that maximize their respective profits.
Running Head: A GAME-THEORETIC MODEL FOR CO-PROMOTIONS: CHOOSING A
COMPLEMENTARY VERSUS AND INDEPENDENT PRODUCT ALLY
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 provides an overview of the
literature. Section 3 presents our three models. Section 4 derives equilibrium solutions. Section 5
compares the findings for the three models. Section 6 analyzes some specific cases to better understand
the impact of some parameters. Section 7 concludes and discusses both the theoretical and managerial
implications of the findings.
2
Overview of the Literature
Two issues investigated in the promotional alliance and co-branding literature are particularly
relevant to the current study. The first issue is whether or not promotional alliances add value to the
partners’ offerings and improve the effectiveness of their other marketing activities. There is general
agreement that promotional alliances have the potential to help achieve various marketing
communications goals, including brand awareness, brand knowledge, and quality signaling (e.g., Rao and
Ruekert 1994, Varadarajan 1985). They can also help participating firms reach greater cost efficiency
since, in many cases, promotional partners share the burden of their joint promotional activities (Son et al.
2006). The effectiveness of joint promotions are also believed to be higher compared to partners'
individual promotional activities due to larger promotional budgets, collective marketing efforts of
participating firms, favorable consumer response, image enhancement through associations, and increased
leverage with trade partners such as channel intermediaries (Varadarajan 1985, 1986).
Using an analytical model, Son et al. (2006) demonstrated that the use of co-promotions can
increase the participating brand profits in mature markets. In such a context, the main role of copromotions is to help brand managers better design their value propositions by price discriminating
between price-sensitive and price-insensitive segments. In a channel context, Karray (2011) studied the
profitability of joint promotions by competing retailers. The main results indicate that promotional
alliances are profit-improving for retailers and manufacturers regardless of the channel structure. On the
other hand, the literature acknowledges the existence of potential risks that may prevent promotional
alliances from achieving their set goals and so produce less desirable outcomes. Examples of such risks
Running Head: A GAME-THEORETIC MODEL FOR CO-PROMOTIONS: CHOOSING A
COMPLEMENTARY VERSUS AND INDEPENDENT PRODUCT ALLY
are: sudden withdrawal by one of the participating brands, litigation, dilution of brand image, and
negative spillover effects (Varadarajan 1985).
The second issue arising in related literature is the identification of factors that affect the
effectiveness and outcomes of joint promotional programs. This literature is essentially behavioral and
identifies the degree of complementarity between featured brands as a key foundation of the effectiveness
of promotional alliances (Samu et al. 1999). This finding is consistent with other studies from the broader
field of co-branding, which support the view that brand and product fit are two predictors of consumer
attitudes towards brand alliances (see Helmig et al. (2008) for a review). Product fit refers to consumers’
perception of the compatibility between two product categories and is generally analyzed at the functional
level. Brand fit is generally a quality-based assessment and refers to consumers’ perception of brand
image cohesiveness and associative consistency between the brands of the marketing alliance
(Bluemelhuber et al. 2007, Simonin and Ruth 1998).
Other relevant factors that affect consumer evaluations of co-branding and promotional alliances
are the degree of awareness and familiarity of the brand allies, and their individual images (Bluemelhuber
et al. 2007, Fang and Mishra 2002, Voss and Tansuhaj 1999). A regular finding in this research is that a
well-known reputable ally enhances consumers' evaluations of an unknown primary brand (Gammoh et
al. 2006, Voss and Gammoh 2004). As a result, it is expected that newly introduced brands should benefit
from promotional associations with well-established and reputable allies. However, the benefit of such
promotional associations for the well-established brands may be less obvious since they can lead to brand
dilution (Varadarajan 1985).
Our research builds on the current knowledge base, which is, with the exception of the papers by
Son et al. (2006) and Karray (2011), essentially derived from descriptive and empirical consumer
behavior works and adopts a formal prescriptive approach. To the best of our knowledge, this research is
the first to study some of the strategic issues brand managers face in planning joint promotional activities
with other partners. In particular, we investigate how factors known to influence consumers' evaluation of
promotional alliances impact the firms' decisions and profits. This strategic perspective of promotional
Running Head: A GAME-THEORETIC MODEL FOR CO-PROMOTIONS: CHOOSING A
COMPLEMENTARY VERSUS AND INDEPENDENT PRODUCT ALLY
alliances offers a new alternative explanation for the use of joint promotions between complementary
products based on the necessity to lessen free riding by providing promotional partners enough incentives
to increase their individual promotional activities. Our research also identifies the formal conditions under
which a primary brand could select either a complementary or an independent product ally, and offers
some insightful results that have relevant theoretical and managerial implications.
Finally, in a supply chain context, the literature on cooperative advertising also discusses similar
strategic issues in joint promotional activities (Li et al. 2002, Sigué and Chintagunta 2009, He et al. 2009,
Huang et al. 2012, Karray 2013, Zhang et al. 2013). In this literature, however, a channel member (e.g.,
manufacturer) provides a promotional support to another (e.g., retailer) who then decides on how much to
invest in promotional activities. Even though the two firms are different entities, the support is generally
provided to share the expenses associated with the promotion of the first channel member’s product.
Alternatively, the current research investigates horizontal joint promotional initiatives where, two firms
pool together their resources to promote two different products. The focus is not on channel interactions.
3
Models
Consider a market in which three firms sell three noncompetitive products. Each firm acts as a
monopoly in its product category, but two of these products are complements. We call Firm 1 and Firm 2
the sellers of the complementary products, while Firm 3 sells a product that is independent from the
others. The primary firm, hereafter Firm 1, considers the possibility of partnering either with Firm 2 or
Firm 3 for a promotional campaign. We contemplate that whether or not it involves price components, the
main goals of such a promotional campaign are to build brand awareness and knowledge, and stimulate
consumer purchase. The following three models account for three different scenarios.
3.1
Model 1: No Joint Promotion
In this status quo model, the three firms undertake their marketing activities without any formal
collaboration among them. Particularly, each Firm i sets its retail price pi and level of individual
promotional effort ai , i  { 1,2,3 } . For simplicity, we assume linear demand functions for the three
Running Head: A GAME-THEORETIC MODEL FOR CO-PROMOTIONS: CHOOSING A
COMPLEMENTARY VERSUS AND INDEPENDENT PRODUCT ALLY
products and quadratic promotional costs ( ai2 ), which are very common in the marketing literature (e.g.,
Chu and Desai 1995, Sigué 2008, Karray 2011). We normalize the unit costs of production for the three
products to zero. The demand and profit functions are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1: Model 1 Specifications
Demand
Profits
F
q1  g1  p1  p 2   a1  a 2
 1  q1 p1  a12
F
q 2  g 2  p 2  p1   a 2  a1
 2  q2 p2  a22
F
q3  g 3  p3   a3
 3  q3 p3  a32
irm 1
irm 2
irm 3
The parameters g i ,  ,  , and  are all positive and respectively denote the baseline demand
for Firm i, the price effect of the complementary product (which also measures the degree of price
complementary between Firms 1 and 2), the effectiveness of a firm's individual promotional effort on its
own demand, and the effectiveness of the complementary product promotional activity on a firm's
demand. We have normalized to 1 the effect of a firm’s own price on its demand.
To simplify our model specifications, we assume that the firms’ actions lead to symmetric effects,
that is, the parameters associated with similar decision variables are identical in either firm's demand.
Another important assumption is: 0    1 which captures the requirement that the price effect of the
complementary product should not be higher than a firm's own price. The extreme scenario, in which
  1 could occur if the two products are perfect complements, meaning that any change in either price
will have the same effect on the demands of the two complementary products. In the same vein, a firm's
individual promotional effect should be at least equal to the promotional effect of the complementary
product (i.e., 0     ). Promotional efforts specifically targeted at a firm's own customers, and
Running Head: A GAME-THEORETIC MODEL FOR CO-PROMOTIONS: CHOOSING A
COMPLEMENTARY VERSUS AND INDEPENDENT PRODUCT ALLY
designed with their needs in mind, should be more effective than activities undertaken by other companies
regardless of whether or not the products are complements. However, in the case of perfectly
complementary products, any increase in the demand for either product should generate the same increase
in the demand for the other product. The importance of  and  depends on several exogenous factors,
including, for example, the type of products, the type and quality of the promotional programs, and the
target audiences. By definition, the demand for Firm 3 offering an independent product is not affected by
the decision variables of the other two firms.
3.2
Model 2: Joint Promotion by Complementary Products
In contrast to Model 1 described above, we now consider the scenario where Firm 1 partners with
Firm 2 to undertake a joint promotional program, overlooking Firm 3 which continues to act alone. Each
Firm i sets its retail price pi and level of individual promotional effort ai , i  {1, 2, 3} as in Model 1. In
addition, Firms 1 and 2 determine their respective promotional effort contributions ( b1 and b2 ) to the
joint promotional program. In this formulation, the partnering firms agree to a level of joint promotional
effort and pay independently for their individual contributions to the joint promotion (Karray 2011). The
assumptions in Model 1 remain unchanged and the costs of these joint promotional activities are also
quadratic ( bi2 ). The demand and profit functions of the three firms in this scenario are summarized in
Table 2.
The parameter  is positive and represents the effectiveness of the joint promotional program on
the demand of the two partnering firms. Again for simplicity, we assume that the joint promotional
program has the same impact on the two promotional partners’ levels of demand. This assumption may
seem restrictive as it does not allow for the study of cases where asymmetric effects are known to occur.
For example, as discussed previously, it is believed that a joint promotional association between a newly
introduced product and a well-established product is more likely to further benefit the former than the
latter. However, this is not the focus of this research. Instead, this paper investigates whether or not it is
worthwhile for Firm 1 to partner with either of the two other firms. Finally, note that the joint
Running Head: A GAME-THEORETIC MODEL FOR CO-PROMOTIONS: CHOOSING A
COMPLEMENTARY VERSUS AND INDEPENDENT PRODUCT ALLY
promotional activity between the two complementary products has no effect on Firms 3’s level of
demand.
Table 2: Model 2 Specifications
Demand
Profits
F
irm 1
q1  g1  p1  p 2   a1  a 2   (b1  b2 )
 1  q1 p1  a12  b12
q 2  g 2  p 2  p1   a 2  a1   (b1  b2 )
 2  q2 p2  a22  b22
F
irm 2
F
q3  g 3  p3   a3
 3  q3 p3  a32
irm 3
3.3
Model 3: Joint Promotion by Independent Products
Firm 1 now partners with Firm 3 to undertake a joint promotional program, while Firm 2
continues to act alone. Each Firm i sets its retail price pi and level of individual promotional effort ai ,
i  {1, 2, 3} as in the previous models. In addition, Firms 1 and 3 set their respective contributions to the
joint promotional program ( b1 and b3 ). Again, the costs of the joint promotional activities are also
quadratic ( bi2 ). The demand and profit functions of the three firms in this scenario are summarized in
Table 3.
The parameter  is positive and represents the impact of the joint promotional program between
Firms 1 and 3 on the demand of Firm 2. Because Firms 1 and 2 sell complementary products, any
promotional activity that benefits Firm 1 will impact Firm 2’s level of demand. Again, we assume that the
effect of the joint promotional program (  ) between Firms 1 and 3 on their respective demands is
identical and is also identical to the joint promotional advertising between Firms 1 and 2. However, we
Running Head: A GAME-THEORETIC MODEL FOR CO-PROMOTIONS: CHOOSING A
COMPLEMENTARY VERSUS AND INDEPENDENT PRODUCT ALLY
consider the effect of the promotional partnership between Firms 1 and 3 on Firm 2's demand to be lower
or equal to the effect of a joint promotional arrangement where Firm 2 is itself involved, 0     .
Again, the rationale is that a firm’s own involvement in a promotional activity should provide a better
return than indirect promotional activities undertaken by other firms for their own benefit.
Table 3: Model 3 Specifications
Demand
Profits
F
q1  g1  p1  p2  a1  a2   (b1  b3 )
irm 1
 2  q2 p2  a22
F
q2  g 2  p2  p1  a2  a1   (b1  b3 )
irm 2
F
q3  g 3  p3  a3   (b1  b3 )
 3  q3 p3  a32  b32
irm 3
4
 1  q1 p1  a12  b12
Equilibrium Solutions
We now derive Nash equilibrium for each of the three games. The firms simultaneously
determine their decision variables, including their respective contributions to the joint promotional
program. The Nash equilibrium concept is chosen because, although the firms commit to a joint
promotional program, they remain separate entities which strive to maximize their respective profits. In
other words, promotional partners do not look for a solution that maximizes their joint profits as in a
standard cooperative game. Each of them keeps full control over its other marketing variables such as
pricing and individual marketing efforts.
The three firms choose simultaneously their pricing and promotional efforts strategies. In
Model 1, Firms decide simultaneously of their prices ( p1 , p 2 , p3 ) and individual promotions
( a1 ,
Running Head: A GAME-THEORETIC MODEL FOR CO-PROMOTIONS: CHOOSING A
COMPLEMENTARY VERSUS AND INDEPENDENT PRODUCT ALLY
a 2 , a 3 ) to maximize their profits. The Nash equilibrium solution is found by solving the system of
equations in the first-order conditions given by
 i
p i

 i
a i
 0 for i  1, 2, 3.
In Model 2, the three firms decide simultaneously of their prices and individual promotions.
Firms 1 and 2 also decide simultaneously of their joint promotion efforts ( b1 , b2 ). The Nash equilibrium
solution is found by solving the system of equations in the first-order conditions given by
 1
b1

 2
b2

 i
pi

 i
a i
 0 for i  1, 2, 3.
In Model 3, the three firms decide simultaneously of their prices and individual promotions.
Firms 1 and 3 also decide simultaneously of their joint promotion efforts ( b1 , b3 ). The Nash equilibrium
solution is found by solving the system of equations in the first-order conditions given by
 1
b1

 3
b3

 i
pi

 i
ai
 0 for i  1, 2, 3 .
The solution to these equations for each Model gives the results in Table 4. To secure interior
solutions, the following conditions must be satisfied for each game: ai  0 , bi  0 , pi  0 , qi  0 ,
 i  0 , i {1, 2, 3} . Firm 3 solves a simple optimization problem in Models 1 and 2. As expected, its
price, individual promotion, and profit in these two scenarios only depend on the baseline demand for its
product and the effectiveness of its individual promotion. In particular, Firm 3's decision variables and
payoff increase as the baseline demand for its product and its individual promotion increase.
Running Head: A GAME-THEORETIC MODEL FOR CO-PROMOTIONS: CHOOSING A
COMPLEMENTARY VERSUS AND INDEPENDENT PRODUCT ALLY
Table 4: Equilibrium Solutions
Model 1
Model 3
1 /  2
1 /  3
 1 /  1
 1 /  2
1 /  3
2 1 /  1
21 /  2
21 /  3
2 1 /  1
21 /  2
21 /  3
F
irm 1
Model 2
b1
a1
p1
q1
1
(4   2 )21 / 12
(4   2   2 )12 / 32
 2 /  2
F
irm 2
(4   2   2 )12 /  22
b2
  2 / 1
 2 /  2
 2 /  3
2  2 / 1
2 2 /  2
22 /  3
2  2 / 1
2 2 /  2
22 /  3
a2
p2
q2
2
(4   2 )22 / 12
(4   2   2 ) 22 /  22
(4   2 )22 / 32
Running Head: A GAME-THEORETIC MODEL FOR CO-PROMOTIONS: CHOOSING A
COMPLEMENTARY VERSUS AND INDEPENDENT PRODUCT ALLY
3 /  3
F
irm 3
b3
g3 /(4   2 )
 3 /  3
2 g3 /(4   2 )
23 /  3
2 g3 /(4   2 )
23 /  3
g3 /(4   2 )
a3
2 g3 /(4   2 )
p3
2 g3 /(4   2 )
q3
g32 /(4   2 )
g32 /(4   2 )
3
(4   2   2 )32 / 32
with;


 2    g  4    g ,
1  2    g 2  4   2 g1 ,
2
2
1
2

 

      4  g  2      g ,
      4     4  2       g
      4      4 g  g      4     2    g ,
        2    2       4     4  g ,
1   2   2  4 g1  2   2   g 2 ,
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
1
1
2
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
1
2
2
3
2
2
2
1
3
1  (2    4   )(2    4   ),
2

2

 2  2     2  4 (2    4   2  2 2 ),





 3    2   2  4 1    2  4  4  2   2   .
As we can see in Table 4, the decisions and payoffs of Firms 1 and 2 depend on all the parameters
involved, making it difficult to isolate the impact of any single model parameter. However, note that for
Firms 1 and 2 to make positive profits in Models 1 and 2, the following conditions should hold,
Running Head: A GAME-THEORETIC MODEL FOR CO-PROMOTIONS: CHOOSING A
COMPLEMENTARY VERSUS AND INDEPENDENT PRODUCT ALLY
respectively:   2 and  2   2  4. The first condition also applies to Firm 2's profit and the second
condition to Firms 1 and 3's profits in Model 3. Observe from these necessary conditions that joint
promotional activities between Firms 1 and 2 (Model 2) and between Firms 1 and 3 (Model 3) are more
likely to be profitable for the partners when the effectiveness of individual promotions takes relatively
smaller values in Models 2 and 3 compared to Model 1, where the maximum value for  is set to 2.
5
Comparing Equilibrium Solutions
Let i , j xk be the difference between the equilibrium solution in Model i and Model j for the
equilibrium strategy or payoff x of firm k , where i, j, k  1, 2, 3 and i  j . We compare the decisions
and payoffs among the three models below. All proofs are available from authors upon request.
5.1
Joint Promotion between Complementary Products vs. Status quo
Proposition 1. Compared to the status quo, the involvement of two complementary products in a
joint promotional program increases their respective level of demand, and leads to higher prices and
investments in individual promotional activities.
Proof. Straightforward comparisons of equilibrium solutions for Model 1 and 2 in Table 4.
Proposition 1 supports the view that joint promotional programs between complementary
products attenuate horizontal externalities that create free riding among them. The rationale is that by
engaging in a promotional alliance, manufacturers expand their level of demand and improve their
margins, which allows them to further invest in their individual marketing efforts. These individual
marketing efforts are otherwise subjected to erosion by free riding.
Proposition 2. A joint promotional program between Firms 1 and 2 is sustainable only if the two
conditions below are verified:
2,1 1 
2,1 2 
4  
2
4  
  2 12 12   2  4  22 21
 0,
12  22



2
  2 12  22   2  4  22 22
 0.
12  22



Proof. Straightforward evaluation of the results in Table 4.
Running Head: A GAME-THEORETIC MODEL FOR CO-PROMOTIONS: CHOOSING A
COMPLEMENTARY VERSUS AND INDEPENDENT PRODUCT ALLY
Proposition 2 compares the profits of the two complementary products for Models 1 and 2. Based
on the principle of individual rationality, Proposition 2 claims that Firms 1 and 2 should enter into a joint
promotional program only if it at least matches the status quo profits of Model 1. The two conditions in
Proposition 2 involve all the parameters. In Section 6, the full impact of these parameters on the firms'
profits will be further investigated for some specific cases.
5.2
Joint Promotion between Independent Products vs. Status quo
Proposition 3. The equilibrium prices, individual promotions, and demands in Models 3 and 1
compare as follows:
Firm 1: 3, 1 p1 , 3, 1a1 , 3, 1q1  0 if
(i)
2     2  4  0; or
(ii)
2     2  4  0 and  2      4   2   0.
Firm 2: 3,1 p2 , 3,1a2 , 3,1q2  0 if;
(iii)
2     2  4  0; or
(iv)
2     2  4  0 and  2      4   2   0.
Firm 3: 3,1 p3 , 3,1a3 , 3,1q3  0 if;
(v)
2     2  4  0; or
(vi)
2     2  4  0 and g 2  g1  0.
Proposition 3 supports the view that with a joint promotional program between independent
products, the impact on decision variables and demands depends on the model parameters. Particularly, it
can depend exclusively on the degree of price ( ) and promotional ( ) complementarity between Firms
1 and 2 and the effectiveness of individual promotions (  ). It can also involve additional parameters,
including the effectiveness of the joint promotion on the partners ( ) and on Firm 2 (  ) , and the
baseline demand of Firms 1 and 2 ( g1 , g 2 ) .
Running Head: A GAME-THEORETIC MODEL FOR CO-PROMOTIONS: CHOOSING A
COMPLEMENTARY VERSUS AND INDEPENDENT PRODUCT ALLY
Consider, for instance, a scenario where Firms 1 and 2 are perfectly complementary on price and
promotion (i.e.,   1 and    ). Conditions (i) and (v) are verified and as a result, in Model 3 Firms 1
and 3 should adopt higher prices and individual promotions as well as experience higher demand. In this
scenario however, the impact of such an alliance on Firm 2 will additionally depend on  and  .
Conditions (i) and (v) are also verified if the products of Firms 1 and 2 are not complementary (i.e.,
  0 and   0 ). Interestingly, a promotional alliance between the two independent products may have
a negative impact on their respective level of demand, especially when the price and promotional effects
of a complementary product in the market are respectively very high and very low, and the partners'
individual promotion effects are high.
Proposition 4. The conditions under which Firms 1 and 3 would prefer Model 3 to Model 1 are:
3,1 1 
(4   2   2 )12 12  (4   2 )21 32
 0,
12  32
3,1 3 
(4   2   2 )(4   2 )32  g 32  32
 0.
 32 4   2


Once more, the sustainability of a promotional partnership between independent products (Firms
1 and 3) depends on all parameters involved.
Corollary 1. Firm 1 would prefer Model 1 to Model 3 (i.e., 3, 1 1  0) ) under the following


conditions: 2     2  4  0 and  2      4   2  0.
From Condition (ii) in Proposition 3, one can see that whenever the above condition is realized,
Firm 1's price, individual promotion, and demand are lower in Model 3 than in Model 1 (
3, 1 p1 , 3, 1a1 , 3, 1q1  0 ). These conditions cannot be satisfied if Firm 2’s product is perfectly
complementary in both price and individual promotion with Firm 1's product (   1 and    ) or if
there were no complement product in the market (   0 and   0 ). On the other hand, the first
condition, 2     2  4  0 , is more likely to be satisfied when  and  take high values and 
Running Head: A GAME-THEORETIC MODEL FOR CO-PROMOTIONS: CHOOSING A
COMPLEMENTARY VERSUS AND INDEPENDENT PRODUCT ALLY


is very small. In such a context, the second condition,  2      4   2  0 , will be verified
when  is large and  is small.
Thus, for Firm1, the presence of a complementary product in the market (Firm 2) may render a
partnership with an independent product less beneficial if the individual promotional activities are not
very effective, and if the joint promotional activity with the independent product does not stimulate
enough demand for the complementary product.
5.3
Choosing a Joint Promotion Partner
Proposition 5. Assume that joint promotion outcomes meet the conditions in Propositions 2 and
4. Firm 1 would prefer a partnership with an independent product (Firm 3) to a partnership with a
complementary product (Firm 2) under the following condition:
3, 2 1 
(4   2   2 )12 22  12 32 
 0.
 32 22
The decision rule in Proposition 5 involves all model parameters. In other words, not only does
Firm 1 take into account the size of the baseline demand for the three products, but it must also assess the
impact of its own decision variables as well as those of its potential partners on the demand for the three
products.
6
Specific cases
Some of the findings derived above involve many parameters, making it difficult to isolate their
individual impacts. In this section, we study a few simplified cases to better evaluate and understand the
impact some model parameters have on Firm 1's partnership choices.
6.1
Identical Joint Promotional Effects
We assume that    ,    , g1  g 2  g 3  g and then vary the values of the price effect ( )
of the complementary product. Figure 1 (left and right) and Figure 2 (left and right) show, respectively,
the feasible domains for the different models and Firm 1's model preferences in the parameter space for
Running Head: A GAME-THEORETIC MODEL FOR CO-PROMOTIONS: CHOOSING A
COMPLEMENTARY VERSUS AND INDEPENDENT PRODUCT ALLY
  0.3 and   1 . The choice of these two specific values is arbitrary, but it is worth mentioning that
the qualitative interpretation made here does not change with other values of  .
Figure 1: Feasible domains for the different models.
Figure 2: Firm 1's model preferences for identical joint promotional effects.
The parameter space in Figure 1 is divided into four different areas. The three models have
interior solutions in the big area at the bottom (Area 1), while only Model 1 has an interior equilibrium in
the area at the top (Area 2). In the other two small areas in the middle either Models 1 and 2 (Area 3) or
Running Head: A GAME-THEORETIC MODEL FOR CO-PROMOTIONS: CHOOSING A
COMPLEMENTARY VERSUS AND INDEPENDENT PRODUCT ALLY
Models 1 and 3 (Area 4) have interior solutions. Thus, Firm 1 can only choose between an independent
and a complementary partner in Area 1.
Observe in Figure 2 that, except in Area 2 where only Model 1 is feasible, Firm 1 adopts either
Model 2 or Model 3 in the remaining three areas. More importantly, when given the choice (as in Area 1
where all three models are feasible, depending on the values of the parameters) Firm 1 would prefer either
Model 2 or Model 3. The space allocated to Model 3 to the detriment of Model 2 grows as the degree of
price complementarity between products 1 and 2 increases. Model 3 becomes more attractive to Firm 1
when an increase in the price of the complementary product (Firm 2) can heavily reduce its demand. A
possible explanation for this finding is that Model 3 allows Firm 1 to get higher demand via increased
investments in promotion, and limits the damaging effect of a significant increase of the complementary
product price in Model 2 which attenuates the full benefit of a joint promotion in such a context. In this
configuration, Model 2 is only preferred for relatively high values of  , particularly   2 , which
allow Firm 1 to overcome the negative effect of an increase of the complementary product’s price on its
demand.
6.2
Differentiated Joint Promotional Effects
We now assume g1  g 2  g 3  g ,    and    . Compared to the previous scenario, we
focus on examples where a joint promotional program has a higher impact on partners’ level of demand
than on any other beneficiary firm in the market. Particularly, we set    / 4 and   3 / 4 for
illustration, but our qualitative findings will hold for any value of  and  . Figure 3 (high-left and highright) and Figure 3 (low-left and low-right) show, respectively, the firms' preferences in the parameter
space for    / 4,   0.3 and   1 and for   3 / 4 ,   0.3 and   1.
Running Head: A GAME-THEORETIC MODEL FOR CO-PROMOTIONS: CHOOSING A
COMPLEMENTARY VERSUS AND INDEPENDENT PRODUCT ALLY
Figure 3: Firm 1's model preferences for differentiated joint promotional effects.
We first characterize the feasible domain for each of the three models. Qualitatively, the findings
are similar to those displayed in Figure 1. Again, except in Area 2 where only Model 1 is feasible, Firm 1
adopts either Model 2 or Model 3 in the remaining areas. Firm 1 can only choose between an independent
and a complementary partner in Area 1, which is at the bottom of Figure 1. For each set value of  with
respect to  , we find in Figure 3 (high-left and high-right) and Figure 3 (low-left and low-right) that
Model 3 is more attractive than Model 2 for higher values of  . Model 2 is preferred for relatively high
values of  (   2 ). Contrasting Figure 3 (high-left and high-right) and Figure 3 (low-left and lowright) indicates that the feasible domain where either Model 2 or Model 3 could be chosen contracts as

Running Head: A GAME-THEORETIC MODEL FOR CO-PROMOTIONS: CHOOSING A
COMPLEMENTARY VERSUS AND INDEPENDENT PRODUCT ALLY
becomes very small compared to  , but this does not qualitatively change Firm 1's partnership choice
preference.
6.3
Different Baseline Demands
We now run numerical simulations for different values of g1 , g 2 and g 3 . We first assume
identical joint promotional effects (    ) and evaluate 3, 1 1 , 3,1 3 , 2,1 1 , 2 ,1 2 and  3,2
1 for
numerical values of  ,  between 0.01 and 2,  between 0.01 and 1 by a pace of 0.01, and
g1 / g 2  x, g1 / g 3  y with x, y between 0 and 2 with a pace of 0.2. The analysis is performed given
the conditions of interior equilibrium solutions for the three models. A similar analysis is also done for
differentiated joint promotional effects for the case where    / 4. Figure 4 displays the preference of
Firm 1 in the parameter space.
Running Head: A GAME-THEORETIC MODEL FOR CO-PROMOTIONS: CHOOSING A
COMPLEMENTARY VERSUS AND INDEPENDENT PRODUCT ALLY
Figure 4: Firm 1's model preferences for different baseline demands.
We find, as in the previous two cases, that when the interior equilibrium conditions are satisfied
for the three models, Firm 1 prefers either Model 2 or Model 3 to Model 1. Model 1 is only adopted when
the two other models do not have interior solutions. In addition, Figure 4 shows that Firm 1 prefers a
promotional partnership with the firm with the largest baseline demand in most areas of the feasible
parameter space, regardless of whether its product is complementary or independent and whether its
baseline demand is smaller or larger than that of the other two firms.
Running Head: A GAME-THEORETIC MODEL FOR CO-PROMOTIONS: CHOOSING A
COMPLEMENTARY VERSUS AND INDEPENDENT PRODUCT ALLY
7
Conclusion
We investigate the optimal choice of a promotional ally. Our game-theoretic model involves three
companies selling non-competitive products. Two products are complements and the third product is
independent from the first two. We studied the conditions under which a primary product (Firm 1) finds it
optimal to partner either with a complementary (Firm 2) or an independent product (Firm 3) to maximize
profits. We built and analyzed three different models. In the status quo model (Model 1), the three firms
do not enter into a promotional alliance and market their products separately. In the other two models, the
primary product firm partners for a joint promotion with the complementary (Model 2) and independent
product (Model 3) respectively.
We characterized the conditions necessary to obtain an interior equilibrium solution for each
model. Surprisingly, we found that Firm 1 profits by entering into a promotional alliance with either a
complementary product or an independent product only if the impacts of its individual and joint
promotional activities are rather small. Also, the effectiveness of individual promotion should remain
relatively small to allow Firm 1 to make a profit when a joint promotion is not undertaken.
Further, the findings indicate that Firm 1 chooses to avoid the joint promotion, co-promote with
the complementary product, or co-promote with the independent product for two reasons. The first is the
lack of other feasible alternatives (this is often the case of Model 1), and the second is the gain of a better
profit when other alternatives are available. Selecting one of the three models on the basis of profit is not
straightforward as it involves all model parameters. The analysis of specific cases provides some
interesting results. For instance, when the two models are feasible, Firm 1 always prefers Model 3 to
Model 1 if there is no other complementary product in the market or there is a perfectly complementary
product. Otherwise, Model 1 may be preferred to Model 3, especially when a promotional alliance with
the independent product reduces Firm 1’s level of demand. In some configurations, Firm 1's preference
for Model 3 to the detriment of Model 2 grows as the degree of price complementarity between the
products of Firms 1 and 2 increases, while Model 2 is Firm 1's preferred choice for higher values of
Running Head: A GAME-THEORETIC MODEL FOR CO-PROMOTIONS: CHOOSING A
COMPLEMENTARY VERSUS AND INDEPENDENT PRODUCT ALLY
effectiveness of individual promotion (  ). Finally, we found that, in most areas in the feasible parameter
space, Firm 1 prefers a promotional partnership with the firm that has the largest consumer base
regardless of whether its product is complementary or independent.
The findings of this research extend the existing literature and offer a strategic perspective of
promotional alliances between different types of products. The behavioral literature has long identified
the degree of product complementarity as a key factor of the success of promotional alliances. We were
able to formally confirm our early expectation that, beyond positive consumer attitudes toward such
alliances (e.g., Samu et al. 1999), a joint promotion between complementary products alleviates
horizontal externalities in promotion and offers incentives to partners to further invest in individual
activities that increase the demand for their products and allow them to charge higher prices. In addition,
we also showed that the presence of a complementary product in the market may make a promotional
alliance with an independent product less attractive. This is an aspect that has been overlooked until now.
As a result, managers who plan to partner with an independent product must carefully scrutinize how any
complementary product in the market may react to such an enterprise and how this reaction might impact
their demand and profits.
Finally, we offer a comprehensive decision-making framework that can enhance the profitability
of promotional alliances. Particularly, we show that the profitability of promotional alliances is not
limited to the degree of functional complementarity between products, but also depends on other critical
factors, including the effectiveness of individual promotions, the effectiveness of joint promotion with
any partner, and the baseline demand for the products involved. The individual importance of some of
these factors for various marketing outcomes is already known. Our framework, however, helps decision
makers identify which factors to emphasize in a specific market configuration when the goal is to
maximize profits. For instance, it is common knowledge that a promotional alliance with a wellestablished brand has a positive impact on consumer evaluations of the primary brand (Gammoh et al.
2006, Voss and Gammoh 2004). Our research supports the view that, under some specified conditions,
Running Head: A GAME-THEORETIC MODEL FOR CO-PROMOTIONS: CHOOSING A
COMPLEMENTARY VERSUS AND INDEPENDENT PRODUCT ALLY
these positive consumer evaluations may translate into profit increases regardless of whether the ally’s
product is complementary or independent. As a result, the primary product may find it optimal to partner
with the product that has a larger consumer base.
Our analysis of pricing and promotional interactions between complementary and independent
products provides a preliminary understanding of the effects of some market and marketing factors on the
making of promotional alliances. This analysis could be extended in several ways to address issues
overlooked in this research. For instance, we have assumed that joint promotion activities between
independent products benefit the two partners equally. This assumption could be relaxed to deal with
more complex setups characterized by a selective response, brand dilution, and negative spillover effects.
The presence of any of these effects may limit the appeal of a promotional alliance with an independent
product to the benefit of an alliance with a complementary product.
Running Head: A GAME-THEORETIC MODEL FOR CO-PROMOTIONS: CHOOSING A
COMPLEMENTARY VERSUS AND INDEPENDENT PRODUCT ALLY
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Running Head: LE RÔLE DE LA COULEUR DANS LE DESIGN D’UNE OFFRE
PROMOTIONNELLE
Le rôle de la couleur dans le design d’une offre promotionnelle
Deny Belisle, Université de Sherbrooke, Canada
Soumaya Cheikhrouhou, Université de Sherbrooke, Canada
Kiranjit Singh, Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada
Résumé
L’objectif de cette recherche est d’étudier l’impact des couleurs des informations numériques
utilisées pour présenter une réduction de prix sur l’attrait perçu de celle-ci. Les résultats de cette
recherche ont permis de confirmer que l’attrait d’une promotion est fonction des longueurs d’onde des
couleurs utilisées pour présenter les informations numériques.
Mots-clés : Prix, promotion des ventes, couleur, perception.
Running Head: LE RÔLE DE LA COULEUR DANS LE DESIGN D’UNE OFFRE
PROMOTIONNELLE
Le rôle de la couleur dans le design d’une offre promotionnelle
La littérature démontre que la perception du prix dans un contexte de l’utilisation d’une réduction
est rarement objective et qu’elle est altérée en fonction de la manière dont l’offre promotionnelle est
présentée. En effet, l’ordre de présentation de la promotion (ex. Bagchi & Davis, 2012), le format de
celle-ci (ex. Choi & Coulter, 2012) ou encore la taille des chiffres qui y sont associés (ex. Coulter &
Coulter, 2005) sont des facteurs affectant l’évaluation de l’attrait d’une réduction de prix. Bien que ces
recherches aient permis de développer l’état des connaissances sur l’impact du format de présentation
d’une réduction de prix sur l’évaluation de celle-ci, l’impact potentiel des couleurs dans lesquelles les prix
et les promotions sont affichés n’a pas été exploré. Or, la couleur est une variable de plus en plus étudiée
en marketing, mais qui reste principalement confinée à l’étude des sites internet (ex. Gorn,
Chattopadhyay, Sengupta, & Tripathi, 2004), des supports publicitaires (ex. Sparkman & Austin, 1980) et
de l’atmosphère générale d’un magasin (ex. Bellizi, Crowley, & Hasty, 1983). Toutefois, malgré
l’importance de ce facteur dans la prise de décision et son utilisation répandue par les détaillants, aucune
recherche ne s’est attardée sur l’effet des couleurs dans le domaine des promotions de ventes. Choisir la
ou les couleurs à utiliser demeure donc un défi important pour le gestionnaire (Deng, Hui, & Hutchinson,
2010). Il serait donc très pertinent d’un point de vue managérial d’identifier les couleurs qui conduiraient
à une meilleure perception des promotions des ventes offertes en magasin ou diffusées dans les divers
outils promotionnels.
Dans la littérature en psychologie, plusieurs recherches démontrent que certaines couleurs
influencent la taille d’un objet via un mécanisme d’illusion d’optique (ex. Bevan et Dukes, 1953 ; Payne,
1958). Ces résultats ont été corroborés en marketing par l’étude de Lajos et Chattopadhyay (2010) dans
un contexte de taille perçue du produit. Dans la présente recherche, l’impact de cette illusion couleurtaille sera étudié à travers une expérimentation visant à ressortir l’effet de la couleur des informations
numériques utilisées sur l’attrait perçu de la promotion. Plus spécifiquement, l’objectif de cette recherche
est d’étudier l’impact de la longueur d’ondes de la couleur des chiffres utilisés dans la présentation de la
réduction de prix sur la perception de l’attractivité de cette offre promotionnelle.
Running Head: LE RÔLE DE LA COULEUR DANS LE DESIGN D’UNE OFFRE
PROMOTIONNELLE
Dans un premier temps, la revue de littérature permettra de décrire les résultats académiques
portant sur l’illusion couleur-taille afin de la relier à la théorie de la cognition numérique, permettant ainsi
de prédire l’impact des couleurs dans un contexte de promotion des ventes. Par la suite, la méthodologie
employée dans l’étude sera exposée. Finalement, après avoir énoncé les résultats obtenus, une discussion
générale des résultats sera présentée suivis des implications théoriques et managériales.
Revue de la Littérature
Une promotion est un outil de vente visant à susciter des réponses positives chez le
consommateur (Indjehagopian & Macé, 1994) et à accroître les niveaux de ventes chez les gestionnaires
(Blattberg, Eppen, & Lieberman, 1981). Logiquement, la perception de l’attractivité de la promotion agit
positivement sur les intentions d’achat (ex. Bagchi & Davis, 2012). Ce résultat a été confirmé par une
multitude de recherches académiques liées à ce concept (ex. Berkowitz & Walton, 1980 ; Chen, Monroe
& Lou, 1998 ; Coulter & Coulter, 2007 ; Janiszewski & Lichtenstein, 1999). En d’autres termes, le choix
des produits et les quantités achetées par les consommateurs sont influencés positivement par leur
perception de l’attractivité de la promotion (ex. Gupta, 1988; Niedrich, Sharma, & Wedell, 2001).
Format de Présentation des Prix et Attractivité de la Promotion
Les travaux académiques en marketing ont démontré que la manière dont les promotions sont
présentées a un impact très significatif sur les perceptions des consommateurs (ex. Chen, Monroe, & Lou,
1998; Coulter & Coulter, 2005; Coulter & Norberg, 2009). En ce sens, le format de présentation des prix
est un élément crucial agissant positivement sur la perception de l’attrait des promotions. À titre
d’exemple, il a été démontré que les attributs visuels d’une promotion tels que les chiffres utilisés pour
présenter les prix (ex. Coulter et Coulter, 2007), les termes utilisés pour promouvoir l’offre (Della Bitta,
Monroe, & McGinnis, 1981) et le format de la réduction de prix (Berkowitz & Walton, 1980) font partie
des variables extrinsèques affectant l’attrait perçu de la réduction de prix.
Plus particulièrement, plusieurs chercheurs soulignent le rôle important que la théorie de la
cognition numérique peut jouer dans l’explication des effets des formats de présentation des prix (ex.
Coulter & Coulter, 2005 ; Coulter & Norberg, 2009). Par exemple, Coulter et Coulter (2005) ont
Running Head: LE RÔLE DE LA COULEUR DANS LE DESIGN D’UNE OFFRE
PROMOTIONNELLE
démontré que l’attractivité d’une offre promotionnelle dépend de la congruence de la taille des chiffres
composant le prix régulier avec la valeur numérique de celui-ci. Pour trouver ce résultat, les auteurs
avaient présenté une annonce publicitaire comportant un produit, un prix régulier et un prix réduit. Une
partie des participants examinait une annonce avec un prix régulier plus grand que le prix réduit en termes
de taille physique des chiffres. Pour l’autre partie des répondants, la taille physique était inversée c’est-àdire que les chiffres du prix réduit étaient plus grands que ceux du prix régulier. Il s’est avéré que la taille
physique du prix régulier influence l’évaluation du prix réduit, la valeur perçue et la probabilité d’achat
du produit annoncé. Un prix réduit présenté avec une taille physique plus petite que celle du prix régulier
était considéré comme étant plus bas qu’un prix réduit avec une taille physique des chiffres plus grande
que pour le prix régulier. Coulter et Coulter (2005) précisent que l’évaluation du prix est traitée de
manière non-consciente puisqu’il apparaît que le prix régulier est perçu rapidement comme plus grand
que le prix réduit si la taille physique du prix régulier est congruente avec sa valeur numérique. La
conclusion de cette étude rejoint les résultats de Dehaene (1989) où, en comparant deux nombres, les
participants étaient plus rapides à identifier le plus grand en termes numérique si celui-ci était représenté
en plus grande taille physique (Dehaene, 1989). À l’inverse, lorsque la valeur numérique la plus élevée
était présentée dans une taille physique plus petite que celle du nombre comparé, alors le temps de
réaction des répondants était plus long (Dehaene, 1989).
Le lien entre la taille physique perçue des chiffres d’une promotion et l’attractivité perçue de
celle-ci a donc été démontré dans la littérature portant du la perception des prix et des promotions. Or,
cette taille perçue est, à son tour, sujette à des biais perceptuels. En effet, certains facteurs, telle la couleur
peuvent altérer la perception de la taille physique, comme ressorti dans la littérature portant sur les
couleurs et la cognition, décrite dans la section suivante.
Les Couleurs en Psychologie et en Marketing
Aujourd’hui, les gestionnaires exploitent les couleurs afin de capter l’attention des
consommateurs (ex. Wells, Brandon, & Lee, 1992). Par exemple, les couleurs sont omniprésentes dans les
restaurants d’où l’utilisation du bleu pour apaiser les clients et les inciter à la consommation (Kido, 2000).
Running Head: LE RÔLE DE LA COULEUR DANS LE DESIGN D’UNE OFFRE
PROMOTIONNELLE
D’ailleurs, il est à noter que dans l’industrie de la grande distribution où la concurrence est féroce
(Keaveney, 1995), les couleurs sont très souvent utilisées dans l’affichage des prix. Ainsi, comme
démontré dans l’Annexe A représentant des affichages de prix et de promotion dans divers magasins au
Québec, en Europe et aux États-Unis, les distributeurs dans diverses industries exploitent très souvent des
couleurs comme le jaune, le rouge, le vert et le bleu noir lors de la présentation de leurs promotions. Or, la
grande variété des couleurs utilisées par les détaillants et le changement de couleurs d’une période à
l’autre suggère leur méconnaissance de l’impact spécifique des couleurs utilisées pour l’affichage des
prix. Néanmoins, bien que l’utilisation du rouge dans le prix semble induire chez les consommateurs de
fortes perceptions d’économies (Grewal, Monroe, & Krishnan 1998) par rapport à d’autres couleurs, ce
domaine de recherche demeure très peu étudié et le rôle des couleurs n’y a pas encore été clarifié.
Définition et mesure des couleurs. Les couleurs sont des perceptions que l’œil humain distingue
grâce aux longueurs d’ondes émises. La longueur d’onde est une notion physique qui signifie l’intensité
de la lumière projetée (Land, 1959). En d’autres termes, la détection visuelle de la couleur d’un objet est
une lumière représentée par un ensemble de différentes longueurs d’ondes qui se rassemblent afin de ne
former qu’une seule couleur (Boker, 1997). Il convient de rajouter que la couleur perçue par l’œil humain
est une longueur d’ondes qui se mesure en nanomètres (aussi écrit sous le nom de nm) 22. Par exemple, les
couleurs de l’arc-en-ciel sont composées chacune d’une longueur d’ondes mesurable. Fondamentalement,
les longueurs d’ondes perceptibles par l’œil humain font partie du spectre visible électromagnétique
(Itten, 1997) et se situent entre 400 et 800 nm. Ainsi, elles peuvent être classées de grande à courte
longueurs d’ondes comme suit : rouge, orange, jaune vert, bleu, indigo et violet (ex. Kwallek, Lewis, LinHsiao, & Woodson, 1996) (voir tableau 1). Toutefois, ce spectre de couleurs ne se limite pas seulement à
ces sept couleurs parce qu’il est estimé que dix millions de variations de couleurs peuvent être identifiés
par un humain (Wyszecki, 2006). Par ailleurs, les longueurs d’ondes provoquent des sensations
différentes chez chaque individu (Gross, Blechinger, & Achtner, 2008) quoique certaines réactions
22
Source : Roue des couleurs, page consultée le 8 octobre 2013. http://semsci.u-strasbg.fr/rouedes.htm
Running Head: LE RÔLE DE LA COULEUR DANS LE DESIGN D’UNE OFFRE
PROMOTIONNELLE
généralisées peuvent être ressorties. Ainsi, le bleu serait une couleur relaxante et le rouge serait plutôt une
couleur excitante (Wexner, 1954).
Tableau 1
Des exemples de longueurs d’ondes des couleurs
Grande longueur d’ondes
Courte longueur d’ondes
Rouge (650 nm)
Orange (600 nm)
Jaune (580 nm)
Vert (530 nm)
Bleu (470 nm)
Violet (420 nm)
Pour répondre à l’objectif de cette recherche qui est d’étudier l’effet de la couleur des
informations numériques utilisées dans une offre promotionnelle sur la perception de l’attractivité de
celle-ci, il s’agira, dans la prochaine section, de décrire les effets de la couleur sur la taille perçue ressortis
dans la littérature en psychologie et en comportement du consommateur.
L’effet de la couleur sur la perception de la taille. La couleur apparait comme un élément clé dans
l’estimation de taille ou du poids de l’objet du point de vue de l’individu. En effet, dans le cadre des
études portant sur les couleurs en psychologie cognitive, les chercheurs ont rapporté l’existence de biais
au niveau de la perception de la taille des objets et des figures dû aux couleurs (ex. Bevan & Dukes, 1953
; Cleveland & McGill, 1983 ; Johns & Sumner, 1948 ; Lajos & Chattopadhyay, 2010). Parmi ces études,
plusieurs auteurs ont mis en exergue que les longueurs d’ondes des couleurs ont un effet significatif sur la
perception des volumes. À cet effet, l’utilisation d’un code de couleurs permettrait d’obtenir des résultats
précis (Cahill & Carter, 1976) et la longueur d’ondes représente un nuancier de couleurs qui fut utilisé par
certains chercheurs (ex. Johns & Sumner, 1948 ; Taylor & Sumner, 1945 ; Lajos & Chattopadhyay,
2010). Grâce à ce système rigoureux, il fut démontré que les stimuli ayant des couleurs à grande longueur
d’ondes (ex. le rouge) paraissaient larges et les couleurs à courte longueur d’ondes (ex. le bleu)
paraissaient petites (Pillsbury & Schaefer, 1937). Plus particulièrement, Cleveland et McGill (1983) se
sont penchés sur les effets de la couleur en utilisant une cartographie du Nevada dont les régions étaient
divisées en plusieurs régions coloriées soit en rouge soit en vert et qui représentaient des aires identiques,
Running Head: LE RÔLE DE LA COULEUR DANS LE DESIGN D’UNE OFFRE
PROMOTIONNELLE
les répondants devaient indiquer les régions qui leur paraissaient grandes. La superficie des régions en
rouge a été perçue comme significativement plus grande que celle des régions en vert. Cleveland et
McGill ont ainsi conclu de la présence d’une illusion couleur-taille. Plus récemment, Gentilucci et ses
collègues (2001) ont manipulé deux couleurs, soit le rouge et le vert, dans le but d’évaluer l’illusion
couleur-taille. Après avoir observé les mouvements des individus concernant la saisie des
parallélépipèdes, ces chercheurs ont trouvé que, pour les stimuli rouges, les participants ouvraient les
doigts d’une manière plus large que pour les stimuli verts, ce qui suggère qu’ils les ont visuellement
perçus comme plus grands de taille. En marketing, Lajos et Chattopadhyay (2010) ont utilisé les couleurs
à grande et courte longueur d’ondes afin de connaître leurs effets sur le volume perçu des produits. À
travers plusieurs expérimentations, ils ont, entre autres résultats, trouvé que les emballages rouges
paraissaient plus larges que ceux présentés en violet et que ceux colorés en vert étaient perçus plus petits
que les emballages jaunes. Ils ont conclu que les couleurs à grande longueur d’ondes, comme le rouge,
influaient significativement sur la perception de volume des emballages de manière à ce qu’ils paraissent
plus grands en termes de taille que ceux arborant des couleurs à courte longueur d’ondes.
Ainsi, d’une manière générale, l’effet significatif des couleurs sur le jugement de taille est mis en
valeur dans la littérature (ex. Cleveland & McGill, 1983 ; Gentilucci, Benuzzi, Gangitano, & Grimaldi,
2001, Gundlach & Macoubrey, 1931 ; Wallis, 1935 ; Warden & Flynn, 1926). La présence de certaines
couleurs incite les individus à croire que le stimulus est plus grand ou plus petit (Tedford, Bergquis, &
Flynn, 1977). Les différents résultats sont résumés dans le tableau 2 et il en ressort que les objets et les
figures avec des couleurs à grande longueur d’ondes comme le rouge sont perçus plus grands. En
revanche, les stimuli avec des couleurs à courte longueur d’ondes telles que le vert paraissent plus petits.
Running Head: LE RÔLE DE LA COULEUR DANS LE DESIGN D’UNE OFFRE
PROMOTIONNELLE
Tableau 2
Les différents résultats sur l’illusion couleur-taille
Noms des
Couleurs utilisées Tâche exécutée par
auteurs
pour les stimuli
les participants
Wallis (1935)
Jaune, blanc,
Comparer les
rouge, vert, bleu
stimuli et les
et noir
classer par ordre de
taille
Bevan et Dukes Rouge, jaune, vert Former des paires
(1953)
et bleu
de cartes qui
paraissaient
identiques en
termes de taille
Bevan et Turner
(1965)
Jaune, rouge, vert,
bleu, blanc et noir
Comparer les
stimuli (J, R, V, B)
aux stimuli blanc et
noir
Tedford,
Bergquist et
Flynn (1977)
Cleveland et
McGill (1983)
Rouge-violet,
jaune-rouge, bleuviolet et vert
Vert, rouge et
jaune
Estimer la paire la
plus grande
Gentilucci,
Benuzzi,
Bertolani et
Gangitano
(2001)
Rouge et vert
Lajos et
Chattopadhyay
(2010)
Rouge, jaune,
violet et vert
Indiquer les régions
les plus grandes de
la carte du Nevada
En se dirigeant vers
les objets, les
participants
devaient attraper
avec leur pouce et
index le cube
coloré posé sur la
table
Estimer le volume
apparent de
plusieurs produits
diffusés sur écran
Résultats en termes de taille
apparente des stimuli
 Par ordre croissant en termes de
taille perçue : jaune, blanc, rouge,
vert, bleu et noir.
 Surestimation de la taille pour les
stimuli en rouge et en jaune
 Les stimuli en vert et en bleu ont
été sous-estimés.
 Surestimation de la taille pour les
stimuli colorés en jaune et en
rouge.
 Sous-estimation de la taille pour
ceux en vert et en bleu.
 Par ordre croissant en termes de
taille perçue : rouge-violet, jaunerouge, violet-bleu et vert.
 Les figures rouges ont été
surestimées par rapport aux vertes
et jaunes.
 La taille des objets rouges a été
surestimée par rapport à celle des
objets verts.
 La figure rouge paraissait plus
grande que la violette.
 La figure jaune paraissait grande
que la verte.
La présente étude contribue à l’enrichissement de cette littérature en s’intéressant aux liens qui
pourraient être effectués entre l’illusion couleur-taille, la cognition numérique et la perception de
Running Head: LE RÔLE DE LA COULEUR DANS LE DESIGN D’UNE OFFRE
PROMOTIONNELLE
l’attractivité de la promotion et ce, en utilisant le modèle des longueurs d’ondes des couleurs qui est un
système rigoureux éprouvé dans plusieurs domaines, incluant celui de la physique.
Couleur et perception de la réduction de prix. Un grand nombre de chercheurs s’est intéressé au
domaine des perceptions des prix (ex. Choi & Coulter, 2012 ; Dodds, Monroe & Grewal, 1991 ;
DelVecchio, Krishnan, & Smith, 2007 ; Fry & McDougall, 1974) et leurs apports théoriques et
managériaux ont été considérables. Ainsi, il est apparu que le format de présentation des prix influence les
intentions d’achats des consommateurs (ex. Coulter & Norberg, 2009). En particulier, selon Coulter et
Coulter (2005), la taille physique des chiffres influence la perception de la magnitude numérique du prix.
Ainsi, un chiffre plus grand physiquement est associé à une perception de taille numérique plus grande
qu’un chiffre plus petit en termes de taille physique. Ainsi, présenter les prix réduits dans une promotion
dans une taille physique plus petite a mené à une valeur perçue plus grande et une probabilité d’achat et
de choix plus élevée que de les présenter dans une taille physique plus grande. Or, d’après la littérature
sur les couleurs, ces dernières influencent la taille perçue d’un objet ou d’une figure, celles à grande
longueur d’ondes comme le rouge donnant l’illusion d’une plus grande taille et celles à courte longueur
d’ondes induisant la perception contraire (ex. Cleveland & McGill, 1983 ; Gentilucci et al., 2001). Malgré
l’utilisation courante des couleurs dans la promotion des ventes par les détaillants, l’effet de la couleur
des chiffres sur l’attractivité de la promotion et la probabilité d’achat demeure inconnu dans la littérature.
En se basant sur les résultats des différentes études liées à l’illusion de taille-couleurs (ex. Johns &
Sumner, 1948 ; Lajos & Chattaupadhyay, 2010), il est attendu que l’utilisation de couleurs à courte
longueur d’ondes, qui mènent à une perception de plus petite taille, soit plus bénéfique en termes
d’attractivité de la promotion lorsqu’elle est utilisée pour les chiffres du prix final réduit (ex. Prix final
réduit = 7,69$) que celle des couleurs à grande longueur d’ondes. À l’opposé, l’utilisation de couleurs à
grande longueur d’ondes, donnant une perception de taille plus grande, pour les chiffres du montant de la
réduction (ex. Épargnez 18,18$) devrait rendre la promotion plus attirante que celles à courte longueur
d’ondes. Ainsi, le format de présentation des prix et les couleurs utilisées pour les chiffres auraient un
impact sur l’attractivité de la promotion et l’intention d’achat des consommateurs. Les deux hypothèses
Running Head: LE RÔLE DE LA COULEUR DANS LE DESIGN D’UNE OFFRE
PROMOTIONNELLE
suivantes sont donc formulées en se basant à la fois sur la littérature dans le domaine des présentations
des prix et celle de la perception des couleurs :
H1 : Lorsqu’une réduction de prix est présentée sous forme de prix final réduit, l’attrait de la
promotion et l’intention d’achat seront plus élevés lorsque le prix final réduit est présenté avec des
couleurs à courte longueur d’ondes par opposition à des couleurs à grande longueur d’ondes.
H2 : Lorsqu’une réduction de prix est présentée sous forme de montant de la réduction, l’attrait de
la promotion et l’intention d’achat seront plus élevés lorsque le montant de la réduction est présenté avec
des couleurs à grande longueur d’ondes par opposition à des couleurs à courte longueur d’ondes.
Méthodologie
Design et Procédure
L’objectif de cette recherche est d’étudier l’impact de la couleur des informations numériques
utilisées pour présenter une réduction de prix sur la perception de l’attractivité d’une offre
promotionnelle. La méthodologie employée dans l’expérimentation suit un design expérimental intersujets : 2 (longueurs d’ondes de la couleur grande versus courte, c’est-à-dire le rouge versus le vert) X 2
(formats de présentation de la réduction: prix final réduit versus montant de réduction). Chaque répondant
évaluait deux offres promotionnelles (couteau à pizza et sèche-cheveux) dont l’ordre de présentation était
balancé entre les versions du questionnaire.
La collecte de données fut effectuée à l’aide d’un questionnaire électronique auto-administré
d’une durée moyenne de dix minutes. Les répondants furent assignés aléatoirement aux différentes
conditions expérimentales. L’échantillon final fut composé (1) de consommateurs canadiens (2) affirmant
ne pas avoir de problème de perception visuelle des couleurs et (3) dont la langue maternelle était
l’anglais, puisque le questionnaire était rédigé en anglais. Les répondants avaient été informés que le but
principal de l’étude était d’évaluer des offres promotionnelles qui seraient bientôt offertes dans les
magasins.
Running Head: LE RÔLE DE LA COULEUR DANS LE DESIGN D’UNE OFFRE
PROMOTIONNELLE
Choix des stimuli
Le choix des stimuli s’est basé sur les précédentes recherches réalisées dans le domaine de
l’évaluation des prix. En effet, la promotion du couteau à pizza fut inspirée d’un stimulus de l’article de
Coulter et Norberg (2009) portant sur la relation entre la distance physique entre le prix régulier et le prix
réduit et la différence numérique perçue entre ces prix. La promotion du sèche-cheveux est basée sur un
stimulus de l’expérimentation menée par Monroe (1971) dans son article portant sur la notion de prix
comme indicateur d’acceptation. De plus, les prix présentés dans la promotion ont été exposés en valeur
absolue dans la présente étude puisque que Choi et Coulter (2012) ont trouvé que les consommateurs
réagissent plus rapidement aux prix présentés sous ce format. Enfin, le choix de la présentation des prix
réguliers et réduits d’une manière verticale plutôt qu’horizontale s’est basé sur l’étude de Coulter et
Coulter (2007).
Les études précédentes sur les couleurs ont révélé des résultats contradictoires en psychologie (ex.
Gundlach & Macoubrey, 1931; Warden & Flynn, 1926) en raison de l’absence de précisions sur les
valeurs des différentes couleurs utilisées dans les expérimentations (Lajos & Chattopadhyay, 2010). Dans
la présente étude, deux longueurs d’onde ont été prises en considération. Le rouge a été choisi pour
illustrer la grande longueur d’onde, ce qui représente une longueur de 650 nanomètres, et le vert pour la
courte longueur d’onde, soit 520 nanomètres. Ces couleurs ont été sélectionnées en se basant sur la revue
de la littérature qui montrait que ces couleurs étaient les plus souvent employées par les chercheurs dans
le domaine de l’illusion couleur-taille et qu’elles ont démontré des effets significatifs sur la perception de
la taille (ex. Cleveland & McGill, 1983 ; Gentilucci et al., 2001 ; Lajos & Chattopadhyay, 2010). En
outre, dans le but d’assurer une approche réaliste de l’expérimentation et donc d’accroître la validité
externe de la recherche, les participants pouvaient observer une photo et une description du produit sur
chaque annonce. Deux exemples des stimuli utilisés dans cette recherche sont illustrés dans la figure 1 cidessous.
Running Head: LE RÔLE DE LA COULEUR DANS LE DESIGN D’UNE OFFRE
PROMOTIONNELLE
Figure 1
Les stimuli utilisés dans les versions 2 et 7 du questionnaire, respectivement.
Running Head: LE RÔLE DE LA COULEUR DANS LE DESIGN D’UNE OFFRE
PROMOTIONNELLE
Structure du Questionnaire
Le questionnaire comportait au total cinq sections. La première partie de celui-ci comprenait une
introduction où le répondant prenait connaissance du contexte et du contenu du questionnaire. La suite du
questionnaire était divisée en quatre sections, la première permettant de mesurer les variables
dépendantes, soit les intentions d’achats et la valeur transactionnelle de l’offre. La deuxième section
mesurant les attitudes des répondants envers les prix perçus dans les magasins. La troisième section du
questionnaire avait trait à l’attitude des participants envers les couleurs. La quatrième section du
questionnaire était consacrée au test d’Ishihara qui permet d’identifier les problèmes de vision reliés aux
couleurs. Finalement, la dernière section concernait les questions socio-démographiques.
De plus, un temps minimal de visionnement des stimuli (avant que la flèche permettant de passer
à la page suivante n’apparaisse) fut intégré au questionnaire. Afin de s’assurer que les participants aient
été suffisamment exposés à l’offre promotionnelle, un laps de temps minimum de douze secondes fut
imposé dans le questionnaire électronique.
Élaboration des Échelles de Mesure
Les échelles de mesure employées dans le questionnaire sont basées sur la revue de la littérature
portant sur la perception des prix. Dans cette recherche, il est attendu que la couleur utilisée pour
présenter l’information numérique influence significativement la perception de la valeur transactionnelle
de l’offre ainsi que l’intention d’achat du produit proposé dans celle-ci. Des énoncés tirés des recherches
mesurant ces deux construits dans un contexte d’évaluation d’offre promotionnelle ont été adoptés dans le
questionnaire (ex. Bambauer-Sachse & Grewal, 2011 ; Dodds, Monroe, & Grewal, 1991). Les détails sur
ces mesures sont résumés dans le tableau 3. Par ailleurs, huit figures tirées du test d’Ishihara ont été
employées dans le questionnaire23 afin de détecter les déficiences visuelles des répondants en termes de
perception des couleurs rouge et verte (Ishihara, 1917).
Source : les figures d’Ishihara, page consultée 10 février 2012.
http://daltonien.free.fr/daltonien/article.php3?id_article=6,
23
Running Head: LE RÔLE DE LA COULEUR DANS LE DESIGN D’UNE OFFRE
PROMOTIONNELLE
Tableau 3
Les échelles de mesures utilisées pour les variables dépendantes
Construit
Énoncé
Mesures
Intentions
I can imagine buying this
Likert, échelle
d’achats
product
bipolaire allant
de 1 à 7
I will recommend this
product to my friends
If I needed a product in this
category, I would buy this
one
Valeur
This product appears to be a
Likert, échelle
transactionnelle
bargain
bipolaire allant
de 1 à 7
The price shown for this
product
This product is considered to
be a good buy
Auteurs
BambauerSachse et
Grewal (2011)
Dodds,
Monroe et
Grewal (1991)
Définition de la Population Cible
La collecte de données fut effectuée auprès de 100 répondants, soit 25 par condition
expérimentale. Douze personnes ont été éliminées de l’échantillon, dont quatre avaient fait des erreurs
dans le test d’Ishihara et qui éprouvaient donc des problèmes de vision des couleurs. De plus, huit
répondants avaient fourni des réponses très incohérentes dans la question finale qui demandait aux
répondants d’identifier, d’après elles, quel était le but de la recherche Par conséquent, la taille de
l’échantillon final était de quatre-vingt-huit répondants, ce qui est en concordance avec celles adoptées
lors des expérimentations antérieures portant sur la perception des prix, tels que Coulter et Norberg, (2009
; N=61) et Choi et Coulter (2012 ; N=64).
Résultats
L’objectif de cette recherche est d’étudier l’effet des couleurs sur l’attrait perçu des offres
promotionnelles. Plus précisément, il s’agit de tester si la longueur d’ondes de la couleur des informations
numériques influence l’attractivité de la promotion. De plus, l’impact de la couleur des informations
numériques sur l’attrait de la promotion est étudié à travers deux formats de présentation ce celle-ci, soit
1) le prix final réduit ou 2) le montant de la réduction proposé. Il est attendu que l’attractivité de la
promotion sera mieux perçue si le prix final réduit est présenté en une couleur conduisant à une illusion
Running Head: LE RÔLE DE LA COULEUR DANS LE DESIGN D’UNE OFFRE
PROMOTIONNELLE
de taille plus petite, autrement dit en vert plutôt qu’en rouge (H1) et la perception de l’attrait de l’offre
promotionnelle sera plus grande si le montant de réduction est présenté en une couleur menant à une
illusion de taille plus grande, c’est-à-dire en rouge plutôt qu’en vert (H2).
Statistiques Descriptives
L’échantillon est composé de 41 femmes, soit 46,6% des répondants, et 47 hommes, soit 53,4% de
celui-ci. Les participants sont âgés entre 18 et 57 ans avec une moyenne d’âge de 35,9 années. La part des
répondants possédant un diplôme universitaire de premier cycle s’élève à 48%. Cette donnée est
représentative de l’ensemble de la population canadienne. En effet, Statistique Canada révèle qu’environ
53% des Canadiens âgés de plus de 15 ans avaient un diplôme en 2011. Pour la plupart des répondants,
l’anglais représente la langue maternelle (90,9%). Seul 9,1% des répondants ont appris une autre langue à
la naissance.
Analyses factorielles exploratoires et alphas de Cronbach
Une analyse factorielle exploratoire avec la méthode de maximum vraisemblance (ML) a été
réalisée sur les deux groupes d’énoncés pour chacun des deux construits, soit l’intention d’achat (en
anglais : willingness to buy) et la valeur transactionnelle (en anglais : Transaction value).
Les facteurs retenus sont ceux dont la valeur propre (Eigen value) était supérieure à 1 (Tabachnick &
Fiddell, 2006). Par la suite, l’analyse de la fidélité des construits a été effectuée via le calcul des alphas de
Cronbach.
Le construit intentions d’achat. En cohérence avec les recherches passées, l’analyse factorielle
des construits a permis d’identifier un seul facteur (ex. Bambauer-Sachse & Grewal, 2011) qui expliquait
86,66% de la variance pour la promotion sur le couteau à pizza et 88,66% de la variance pour la
promotion sur le sèche-cheveux. Le tableau 4 regroupe les résultats de l’analyse factorielle pour chacun
des énoncés et les alphas de Cronbach pour chacun des construits.
Running Head: LE RÔLE DE LA COULEUR DANS LE DESIGN D’UNE OFFRE
PROMOTIONNELLE
Tableau 4
Le modèle d’analyse factorielle exploratoire et les alphas de Cronbach
pour le construit intention d’achat
Variable/énoncés
Corrélation de
structure
Intentions d’achat : Couteau à pizza (3 énoncés, α= 0,92)
Énoncé 1: I can imagine buying this product
0,94
Énoncé 2: I will recommend this product to my friends
0,92
Énoncé 3: If I needed a product in this category, I would buy
this one
Intentions d’achat : Sèche-cheveux (3 énoncés, α= 0,93)
Énoncé 1: I can imagine buying this product
0,94
Énoncé 2: I will recommend this product to my friends
0,94
0,95
Énoncé 3: If I needed a product in this category, I would buy
0,94
this one
Le construit valeur transactionnelle. Concernant l’analyse des énoncés relatifs à la valeur
transactionnelle, il convient de noter que le facteur expliquait 92,55% de la variance pour le couteau à
pizza et 86,08% pour le sèche-cheveux. Les données du tableau 5 présentent les résultats de l’analyse
factorielle pour chacun des énoncés ainsi que les alphas de Cronbach pour chacun des construits.
Tableau 5
Le modèle d’analyse factorielle exploratoire et les alphas de Cronbach
pour le construit valeur transactionnelle
Variable/énoncés
Corrélation de
structure
Couteau à pizza (3 énoncés, α= 0,96)
Énoncé 1: This product appears to be a bargain
0,96
Énoncé 2: The price shown for this product
0,96
Énoncé 3: This product is considered to be a good buy
0,97
Sèche-cheveux (3 énoncés, α= 0,92)
Énoncé 1: This product appears to be a bargain
0,93
Énoncé 2: The price shown for this product
0,94
Énoncé 3: This product is considered to be a good buy
0,91
Running Head: LE RÔLE DE LA COULEUR DANS LE DESIGN D’UNE OFFRE
PROMOTIONNELLE
Après avoir procédé à ces analyses factorielles exploratoires et à l’évaluation des alphas de
Cronbach, les résultats obtenus pour chacun des items ont été combinés (via des calculs de moyennes
arithmétiques) afin de créer des scores moyens pour chacun des construits. Par la suite, une analyse de
variance multivariée (MANOVA) a été effectuée puisque cette étude regroupe plusieurs variables
dépendantes.
Analyses de Variance Multivariée
Dans un premier temps, il s’agissait de tester l’hypothèse H1 concernant l’impact de la couleur
sur l’attrait d’une promotion dans un contexte où le format de présentation de celle-ci est de type « prix
final réduit ». Tout d’abord, une analyse de variance multivariée a été effectuée pour la promotion sur le
couteau à pizza. Les résultats multivariés étaient significatifs (F(2,45) = 2,69, p=0,05; Λ de Wilk = 0,85,
η2 partiel = 0,15, Puissance du test= 0,51). L’analyse univariée de la promotion présentée sous le format
de type « prix final réduit » démontre également des effets significatifs présentés dans le tableau 6. Ainsi,
tel que prédit par l’hypothèse H1, il ressort que présenter les informations numériques d’un prix final
réduit en vert conduisent à une plus grande valeur transactionnelle perçue de la promotion et à de plus
fortes intentions d’achat que de présenter ces mêmes informations numériques en rouge.
Tableau 6
Les effets univariés inter-sujets d’une promotion présentant le prix du couteau à pizza
sous le format de prix réduit
Variables
Intention
d’achat
Valeur
transactionnelle
Score moyen
pour la
promotion en
vert
(Écart-type)
5,25
(1,45)
5,29
(1,52)
Score moyen
pour la
promotion en
rouge
(Écart-type)
4,46
(1,46)
4,29
(1,46)
Valeur
de F
Valeur
de P
Puissance
du test
3,55
0,07
0,45
5,42
0,02
0,63
Ces résultats sont cohérents avec ceux obtenus lors de l’analyse de variance multivariée effectuée
pour la promotion du sèche-cheveux. En effet, l’analyse démontre que les effets multivariés sont
Running Head: LE RÔLE DE LA COULEUR DANS LE DESIGN D’UNE OFFRE
PROMOTIONNELLE
significatifs (F(2,45) = 2,45, p=0,01; Λ de Wilk = 0,79, η2 partiel = 0,21, Puissance du test= 0,85). Il en
est de même pour les effets univariés présentés dans le tableau 7. Par conséquent, au travers ces deux
catégories de produits, dans un contexte où le format de présentation de la réduction est de type « prix
final réduit », l’attractivité des promotions est plus importante lorsque les informations numériques sont
présentées en vert, qui est une couleur à courte longueur d’ondes que lorsqu’ils sont présentées en rouge,
qui est une couleur à grande longueur d’ondes. L’hypothèse H1 est donc confirmée à travers deux
catégories de produits.
Tableau 7
Les effets univariés inter-sujets d’une promotion présentant le prix du sèche-cheveux
sous le format de prix réduit
Variables
Intention
d’achat
Valeur
transactionnelle
Score moyen
pour la
promotion en
vert
(Écart-type)
5,29
(1,24)
5,54
(1,02)
Score moyen
pour la
promotion en
rouge
(Écart-type)
4,19
(1,38)
4,43
(1,23)
Valeur
de F
Valeur
de P
Puissance
du test
8,42
0,01
0,81
11,65
0,00
0,92
Dans un deuxième temps, il s’agissait de tester l’hypothèse H2 concernant l’impact de la longueur
d’onde de la couleur sur l’attrait d’une promotion dans un contexte où le format de présentation de celleci est de type « montant de la réduction ». En ce qui concerne la promotion portant sur le couteau à pizza,
une analyse de variance multivariée (MANOVA) a mis en évidence une relation significative entre la
couleur et l’attractivité de la promotion, évaluée en termes d’intention d’achat et de valeur
transactionnelle perçue de l’offre promotionnelle, lorsque celle-ci était présentée en format de type
« montant de réduction » (F(2, 37) = 2,16, p=0,08; Λ de Wilk = 0,89, η2 partiel = 0,11, Puissance du test=
0,59). Au niveau univarié, les effets sont aussi significatifs (tableau 8). Ces résultats montrent que dans le
contexte d’un format de présentation de type « montant de la réduction », l’utilisation de la couleur rouge
(qui est une couleur à grande longueur d’ondes) pour présenter les informations numériques génère des
Running Head: LE RÔLE DE LA COULEUR DANS LE DESIGN D’UNE OFFRE
PROMOTIONNELLE
niveaux d’intentions d’achat et une valeur transactionnelle perçue plus élevés que l’utilisation de la
couleur verte (qui est une couleur à courte longueur d’ondes) pour présenter ces mêmes informations. Ces
résultats confirment donc l’hypothèse H2.
Tableau 8
Les effets univariés inter-sujets d’une promotion présentant le prix du couteau à pizza
sous le format de montant de réduction
Variables
Intentions
d’achat
Valeur
transactionnelle
Score moyen
pour la
promotion en
vert
(Écart-type)
5,02
(0,75)
4,93
(0,75)
Score moyen
pour la
promotion en
rouge
(Écart-type)
5,57
(0,95)
5,67
(1,02)
Valeur
de F
Valeur
de P
Puissance
du test
4,15
0,05
0,51
6,73
0,01
0,72
De même, pour la promotion portant sur le sèche-cheveux, l’effet de la couleur sur l’attractivité
de la promotion est également significatif (F(2,45) = 2,37, p<0,01; Λ de Wilk = 0,72, η2 partiel = 0,28,
Puissance du test= 0,92). L’effet significatif au niveau univarié suggérant que l’utilisation du rouge
génère un niveau de valeur transactionnelle perçue et d’intentions d’achat supérieures de la promotion que
l’utilisation du vert est présenté dans le tableau 9. L’hypothèse H2 est donc confirmée au travers les deux
catégories de produits.
Tableau 9
Les effets univariés inter-sujets d’une promotion présentant le prix du sèche-cheveux sous le format de
montant de réduction
Variables
Intentions
d’achat
Valeur
transactionnelle
Score moyen
pour la
promotion en
vert
(Écart-type)
4,90
(1,01)
5,20
(0,80)
Score moyen
pour la
promotion en
rouge
(Écart-type)
5,55
(1,11)
6,13
(0,80)
Valeur
de F
Valeur
de P
Puissance
du test
3,76
0,06
0,47
13,57
0,00
0,95
Running Head: LE RÔLE DE LA COULEUR DANS LE DESIGN D’UNE OFFRE
PROMOTIONNELLE
Conclusion
L’objectif de cette recherche était de connaître l’effet de la longueur d’ondes des couleurs des
informations numériques utilisées pour présenter une réduction de prix, soit sous un format de type « prix
final réduit » ou de type « montant de la réduction », sur la perception de l’attractivité de cette offre
promotionnelle. Les résultats de cette recherche ont permis de confirmer que l’attrait d’une promotion est
fonction des longueurs d’ondes des couleurs utilisées pour présenter les informations numériques,
confirmant les deux hypothèses proposées. En cohérence avec l’illusion taille-couleur, les participants ont
évalué plus positivement l’offre promotionnelle, tant en termes de valeur transactionnelle perçue de
l’offre que d’intention d’achat, lorsque les informations numériques du « prix final réduit » étaient
présentées en vert plutôt qu’en rouge. À l’opposé, les participants ont évalué plus positivement l’offre
promotionnelle, tant en termes de valeur transactionnelle perçue de l’offre que d’intention d’achat,
lorsque les informations numériques du « montant de la réduction » étaient présentées en rouge plutôt
qu’en vert.
Les résultats de l’étude actuelle constituent un avancement important dans la littérature portant
sur l’impact du format de présentation dans un contexte d’offres promotionnelles et confirment l’impact
de celui-ci sur la perception de l’attractivité d’une offre de réduction de prix (ex. Compeau, Grewal, &
Chandrashekaran, 2002 ; Coulter & Coulter, 2007 ; DelVecchio, Lakshmanan, & Krishnan, 2009 ;
Kalwani & Yim, 1992). En effet, la présente étude intègre la théorie de l’illusion couleur-taille (ex.
Bevan & Turner, 1965 ; Lajos & Chattopadhyay, 2010 ; Tedford, Bergquist, & Flynn, 1977) dans la
littérature sur la perception des prix (ex. Choi & Coulter, 2012; Coulter & Coulter, 2005 ; Coulter &
Norberg, 2009) en démontrant l’effet de la couleur des chiffres, et particulièrement de leur longueur
d’ondes, sur la perception de l’attractivité de l’offre promotionnelle. Plus particulièrement, ces résultats
vont dans le même sens que ceux de Coulter et Coulter (2005) qui ont démontré que la taille physique des
chiffres influe sur l’évaluation de l’offre promotionnelle, affectant positivement les intentions d’achat. En
effet, les résultats de la présente étude ont prouvé que la perception d’une attractivité élevée de l’offre
promotionnelle agit favorablement sur la probabilité d’achat.
Running Head: LE RÔLE DE LA COULEUR DANS LE DESIGN D’UNE OFFRE
PROMOTIONNELLE
De surcroît, cette recherche apporte une meilleure connaissance de l’effet des couleurs en
comportement du consommateur. Ainsi, plusieurs recherches ont été consacrées à l’étude des effets des
couleurs du magasin (ex. Babin, Hardesty, & Suter, 2003 ; Crowley, 1993 ; Kotler, 1973), du fond d’un
site internet (ex. Gorn et al., 2004) ou encore des annonces publicitaires (ex. Sparkman & Austin, 1980)
sur les intentions d’achats. Cependant, il existe une lacune au niveau de la recherche portant sur l’effet de
la couleur au niveau de la communication sur le lieu de vente et dans les annonces promotionnelles des
commerces et particulièrement au niveau de la présentation des offres promotionnelles. Pourtant, comme
illustré dans l’annexe A, les couleurs sont très souvent utilisées dans l’affichage des promotions dans les
commerces de détail. Cette recherche a permis de pallier en partie à ce manque d’investigation dans la
littérature.
Finalement, de nombreux travaux ont démontré l’impact des couleurs sur la taille perçue (ex.
Bevan & Turner, 1965 ; Cleveland & McGill, 1983 ; Gentilucci et al., 2001 ; Tedford, Bergquist, &
Flynn, 1977 : Wallis, 1935) et le poids apparent de l’objet (ex. Bevan & Dukes, 1953 ; Payne, 1961 ;
Warden & Flynn, 1926). Dans la littérature en marketing, seuls Lajos et Chattopadhyay (2010) ont utilisé
cette illusion pour comprendre l’effet de la couleur sur le volume des produits perçu par le consommateur.
Aussi, en cohérence avec la méthodologie adoptée par Lajos et Chattopadhyay (2010), cette recherche
confirme la pertinence du concept de longueurs d’ondes qui permet d’obtenir des résultats cohérents au
niveau de la perception de la taille due à la couleur. De plus, la recherche consacrée à l’impact de la
couleur rouge sur le comportement de l’individu et du consommateur a fait l’objet de plusieurs études
dans le domaine de la psychologie (ex. Cleveland & McGill, 1983 ; Gentilucci et al., 2001) et du
marketing (ex. Bagchi & Cheema, 2013 ; Crowley, 1993 ; Gorn et al., 2004). L’importance de la couleur
rouge a été nuancée dans la présente recherche. Spécifiquement, l’utilisation d’une couleur à courte
longueur d’ondes (le vert) était préférable à l’utilisation d’une couleur à grande longueur d’ondes (le
rouge) dans un contexte où la réduction est présentée dans un format de type « prix final réduit ». À
l’opposé, l’utilisation d’une couleur à grande longueur d’ondes a induit un attrait supérieur
Running Head: LE RÔLE DE LA COULEUR DANS LE DESIGN D’UNE OFFRE
PROMOTIONNELLE
comparativement à l’utilisation d’une couleur à courte longueur d’ondes lorsque le format de présentation
était de type « montant de la réduction ».
La principale implication managériale de cette recherche réside dans l’amélioration des
connaissances relatives à la création et au design d’offres promotionnelles basées sur des réductions de
prix. Étant donné que plusieurs biais perceptuels des consommateurs interviennent dans les processus
d’achats tels que celui provenant du format de présentation des prix (ex. Coulter & Norberg, 2009) et de
l’élongation de l’emballage (ex. Wansink & Van Ittersum, 2003), les entreprises ont des difficultés à
prédire les réactions des consommateurs par rapport à leurs offres dans les points de vente. Les résultats
de cette recherche apportent ainsi des éléments de réponse à la question « comment rendre ma promotion
plus attirante? » et aident à la compréhension des biais perceptuels auxquels les consommateurs sont
sujets.
Par ailleurs, il est important de noter que l’utilisation des différentes formes de promotions
(concours, achats groupés, réduction, rabais, etc.) est très répandu en Amérique du Nord (Donnelley
Marketing Inc., 1996). Face à cette tendance, les réactions positives des consommateurs envers les
promotions s’estompent peu à peu vu l’omniprésence des prix sur les lieux de vente. Dans le but
d’améliorer l’efficience des promotions, les gestionnaires peuvent utiliser des couleurs d’une manière
judicieuse pour influencer positivement sur la perception des consommateurs. En effet, le choix de la
couleur dans les offres promotionnelles peut s’avérer être un atout concurrentiel dans l’industrie de la
distribution. Par cette recherche, le gestionnaire pourrait connaître les couleurs impactant favorablement
sur les perceptions des individus et ce, à un coût inexistant puisque la pratique des couleurs se fait déjà
dans les prix présentés dans les magasins. En outre, la fidélisation de la clientèle représente un défi
majeur pour tous les distributeurs puisque les produits stockés et invendus engendrent des coûts
logistiques importants. L’étude actuelle propose des recommandations précises au niveau du design des
offres promotionnelles susceptibles d’améliorer l’efficacité celles-ci en augmentant leur attractivité et les
intentions d’achats des consommateurs. Particulièrement, l’impact significatif de la couleur sur
l’attractivité de la promotion dépend du format de la réduction, soit un prix final réduit versus un montant
Running Head: LE RÔLE DE LA COULEUR DANS LE DESIGN D’UNE OFFRE
PROMOTIONNELLE
de réduction. Selon les résultats obtenus, le rouge aboutit à des probabilités d’achats plus élevées
lorsqu’utilisé pour présenter le montant de la réduction et le vert entraîne une plus grande attractivité de la
promotion lorsqu’appliqué à la présentation du prix final réduit. Même si la majorité des détaillants utilise
déjà ces couleurs pour promouvoir leurs offres promotionnelles, il est important pour ces derniers de
choisir les couleurs en fonction des effets démontrés dans cette recherche et s’assurer d’une adéquation
entre le choix des couleurs et le format de présentation de la réduction proposée.
Cette recherche apporte une nouvelle perspective par rapport aux études précédentes, mais elle
présente tout de même des limites qui doivent être mentionnées et qui pourraient faire l’objet de
recherches futures. D’abord, une limite d’ordre méthodologique est existante dans cette étude : il s’agit du
nombre de couleurs utilisées dans l’expérimentation. Deux niveaux de couleurs, soit le rouge, soit le vert,
ont démontré un effet significatif sur la perception de l’attractivité de la promotion. Dans les recherches
futures, il serait intéressant d’exploiter d’autres couleurs à grande longueur d’onde tels que le jaune et à
courte longueur d’onde comme le bleu. Une étude précédente a prouvé par exemple que le jaune
conduisait à une plus grande illusion couleur-taille (Bevan & Turner, 1965). Il serait donc pertinent de
généraliser les résultats de cette étude en répliquant l’expérimentation en utilisant d’autres couleurs
appartenant aux deux niveaux de longueurs d’ondes étudiés. De plus, il serait intéressant d’étudier
l’impact de la luminosité de la couleur sur l’attractivité de la promotion dans des recherches futures afin
d’affiner les résultats. En effet, la luminosité de la couleur a démontré un impact positif sur la taille
apparente (ex. Bevan & Turner, 1965). De ce fait, la luminosité pourrait avoir un impact sur l’attractivité
de la promotion via le même mécanisme taille-couleur proposé dans la présente recherche.
En outre, il serait également pertinent de mesurer les effets de la longueur d’ondes de la couleur
appliquée aux étiquettes des prix qui sont souvent colorées en magasin. En effet, dans la collecte
d’informations dans les magasins effectuées dans une recherche préliminaire de cette étude, il est ressorti
que les commerçants utilisent souvent la couleur du fond, donc de l’étiquette du prix, pour mettre en
évidence une promotion dont les chiffres sont écrits en noir. De ce fait, il serait judicieux d’étudier les
effets des couleurs des étiquettes de prix sur les intentions d’achat et l’attractivité perçue de la promotion
Running Head: LE RÔLE DE LA COULEUR DANS LE DESIGN D’UNE OFFRE
PROMOTIONNELLE
afin d’avoir une vision globale des facteurs affectant le processus d’achat du consommateur et une
meilleure compréhension de l’illusion couleur-taille.
En conclusion, cette étude démontre que la couleur est un facteur déterminant dans l’évaluation
d’offres de réduction de prix. Par conséquent, la recherche actuelle présente une perspective novatrice qui
permettra d’enrichir la littérature académique et la pratique.
Running Head: LE RÔLE DE LA COULEUR DANS LE DESIGN D’UNE OFFRE
PROMOTIONNELLE
ANNEXE A
Exemples réels d’utilisation de couleurs pour présenter l’information numérique
sur le prix et la réduction
Running Head: LE RÔLE DE LA COULEUR DANS LE DESIGN D’UNE OFFRE
PROMOTIONNELLE
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Running Head: LABOR STANDS IN THE WAY OF TRUE LOVE: WHEN LABOR DOES
NOT LEAD TO LOVE
Labor Stands in the Way of True Love: When Labor does not Lead to Love
Peyman Assadi, University of Manitoba, Canada
Kelley Main, University of Manitoba, Canada
Abstract
For many years, research centered on effort justification has focused on the relationship
between the effort one puts into a task and the resulting valuation of the outcome arguing that
effort increases the favorable valuation (e.g. Aronson and Mills (1959), Alessandri, Darcheville,
and Zentall (2008), and Lydall, Gilmour, and Dwyer (2010)). In other words, you like the
outcome regardless of whether others like it or not (Norton, Mochon, Ariely (2012)). However,
little research has focused on the inverse phenomenon where the effort put in does not result in a
heightened valuation.
Running Head: LABOR STANDS IN THE WAY OF TRUE LOVE: WHEN LABOR DOES
NOT LEAD TO LOVE
Theoretical Development
Aronson and Mills (1959) were one of the first to verify the relationship between effort and
valuation. Alessandri, Darcheville, and Zentall (2008) extended the theory by arguing that the
justification-of-effort effect can also happen in an asocial context. Lydall, Gilmour, and Dwyer
(2010) revealed that complex cognitive processing is not needed for the effort-justification
effect. Norton, Mochon and Ariely (2012) further demonstrated that the physical exertion of
effort (i.e. labor) accompanied with successful completion of the task is sufficient for effort
justification to happen.
However, one major issue seems to be overlooked by the previous literature. The type of
effort used in the literature thus far has always been one that adds to participants’ resources and
is in no way threatening. For instance, Lodewijkx and Syroit (2001) argue that participants in the
Aronson and Mills (1959) study favorably evaluated their effort because it satisfied their sense of
affiliation to a group. In Lydall, Gilmour, and Dwyer (2010), rats exerted effort to obtain
sucrose. Moreover, Norton, Mochon and Ariely (2012) put forth the fact that when consumers
put in effort and complete the task, their “sense of effectence” is satisfied. In the current
research, however, we explore a different kind of effort, one that may threaten resources, namely
one’s ego and self-esteem. Conservation of Resources Theory (COR) (Hobfoll 1988, 1991,
2001) posits that “people strive to retain, protect, and build resources and that what is threatening
to them is the potential or actual loss of these valued resources” (Hobfoll (1989), p.516). Hobfoll
(1989) suggests that such resources include objects and personal characteristics. The basic tenet
of COR theory is that stress is produced when resources are threatened. Hobfoll (1989) suggests
that in order to cope with this stress and conserve resources, individuals deploy different
Running Head: LABOR STANDS IN THE WAY OF TRUE LOVE: WHEN LABOR DOES
NOT LEAD TO LOVE
mechanisms and turn against the stressor. Therefore, it is argued that when labor threatens
resources, it works as a stressor and according to COR, it will be evaluated negatively.
The type of threatening labor which is used in the current work is labor in which the
expectation of the outcome of the labor is negatively disconfirmed (based in part on Oliver
(1977). This method of threatening ego is a common method in the negative feedback literature
(e.g. Bushman and Baumeister (1998)). Weiner (1985) argues that when facing expectation
disconfirmation, one feels threatened and in order to cope with this threat, the person tries to
attribute the reason of this disconfirmation to an external\internal factor. Weiner (1985) predicts
that when this attribution is internal, one’s self-esteem is threatened.
In our first study, we show whether labor leads to love under non-threatening conditions.
Then, in the second study, we verify that when labor acts as a threatening factor, it reduces the
favorable valuation of the outcome.
Study 1
This study was a one-way between subjects design (high vs. low effort) with willingness to
pay as the dependent variable. The goal of this study was to show that higher effort results in
higher favorable valuation of outcome in the task intended to be used for the second study.
Participants (N=59) were asked to finish a painting and then put a price on their painting as if it
was about to be sold in a charity event. In the low effort condition, participants painted using
three main colors of red, blue and yellow. In the high effort condition, participants had to do
some extra work mixing the paints, cleaning the brushes, and cutting the painting out to glue to
another surface. Our results showed that low effort (M=3.42) participants valued their painting
significantly higher than high effort participants (M=6.14, F (1, 57) =4.764, p=0.033) showing
Running Head: LABOR STANDS IN THE WAY OF TRUE LOVE: WHEN LABOR DOES
NOT LEAD TO LOVE
that effort increases the favorable valuation of the outcome. In the next study we investigate the
role of on the evaluation of outcome.
Study 2
This study was a 2(Effort: high vs. low) × 2(Expectation disconfirmation: negative vs.
positive) between subjects design (N=83). As in Study 1, all participants completed a painting.
After the task, participants were asked to evaluate their painting using a number from 1 to 20.
Then, we took a photograph of their painting in front of them and participants were told that their
painting was being sent electronically to a professional in the art department to be evaluated.
Some minutes later, the evaluation of the expert was sent back to participants. Evaluations were
randomly assigned and either confirmed or disconfirmed the mark that participants had given
themselves. For example, if the participant had given themselves 13, and they were in the
negative (positive) disconfirmation condition, the feedback mark was 8(18).
As predicted, there was a significant interaction between effort and expectation
disconfirmation on price (F (1, 67) =6.113, p=0.016). The prices put on the paintings were
significantly different with the lowest prices in the high-effort/negative disconfirmation
condition (M=2.85) and highest in the high-effort/positive disconfirmation condition (M=10.289,
F (3, 67) =4.911, p=0.004). This suggests that threatening ego and self-esteem via expectation
disconfirmation plays a moderating role in the relationship between labor and valuation.
Conclusion
The current research reveals that threatening labor reduces the favorable valuation of the
outcome. Specifically, when the expectations of the outcome of the labor are negatively
disconfirmed, the labor does not increase the favorable valuation, but it also works as a
Running Head: LABOR STANDS IN THE WAY OF TRUE LOVE: WHEN LABOR DOES
NOT LEAD TO LOVE
threatening factor resulting in a reduced favorable valuation of the outcome. This finding is a
contribution to the previous literature which has suggested that high effort is always
accompanied by favorable valuation. However, we unveiled a condition in which high effort is
not reciprocated by favorable valuation. Theoretically, the current research contributes to the
literature by integrating COR theory into that of effort justification to reveal situations in which
effort does not result in favorable valuations. From a managerial standpoint, this research
suggests that those companies that are relying on the premise that labor leads to love need to be
aware of the conditions under which this effect does not hold.
References
Alessandri, J., Darcheville, J. C., Zentall, T. R. (2008). Cognitive dissonance in children:
Justification of effort or contrast?, Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 15, 3,673-677.
Aronson, E. & Carlsmith, J. M. (1962). Performance expectancy as a determinant of actual
performance. Journal of abnormal and social psychology, 1962, Vol.65, pp.178-82 [Peer
Reviewed Journal]
Aronson, E. , and Mills, J. (1959). “The effect of severity of initiation on liking for a group” ,
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 59, 177-181.
Bushman, B. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (1998). Threatened egotism, narcissism, self-esteem, and
direct and displaced aggression: Does self-love or self-hate lead to violence?. Journal of
personality and social psychology, 75(1), 219.
Hobfoll, S. E. (1988). The ecology of stress. Washington, DC: Hemisphere.
Running Head: LABOR STANDS IN THE WAY OF TRUE LOVE: WHEN LABOR DOES
NOT LEAD TO LOVE
Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress.
American Psychologist, 44, 513-524.
Hobfoll, S. E., & Jackson, A. P. (1991). Conservation of resources in community intervention.
American Journal of Community Psychology, 19(1), 111-121.
Hobfoll, S. E. (2001). The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress
process: Advancing conservation of resources theory. Applied Psychology, 50, 337-421.
Lodewijkx, H. F., & Syroit, J. E. M. M. (2001). Affiliation during naturalistic severe and mild
initiations: Some further evidence against the severity-attraction hypothesis. Current
Research in Social Psychology, 6(7), 90-107.
Lydall, E. S., Gilmour, G., and Dwyer, D. M. (2010). Rats place greater value on rewards
produced by high effort: An animal analogue of the “effort justification” effect, Journal of
Experimental Social Psychology, Vol.46 (6), pp.1134-1137 [Peer Reviewed Journal]
Norton, M. I., Mochon, D., Ariely, D. (2012). “The IKEA effect: When labor leads to love”,
Journal of Consumer Psychology, 2012, Vol.22 (3), pp.453-460 [Peer Reviewed Journal].
Oliver, R. (1977). Effect of expectation and disconfirmation on postexposure evaluations: an
alternative interpretation. Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 62 pp.480-6.
Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion.
Psychological review, 92(4), 548-573.
Running Head: I DO IT BECAUSE I BELIEVE IT: RECONSIDERATION OF LOYALTY IN
REGARD TO ITS ATTUTUDINAL ANTECEDENTS
I Do It Because I Believe It: Reconsideration of Loyalty in Regard to Its Attitudinal Antecedents
Mehdi Akhgari (student), Asper School of Business, Canada
Abstract
Consumer loyalty is generally considered the ultimate goal of relational marketing. On the other
hand, hedonic and utilitarian attitudes are important antecedents of consumer behaviour. However, little is
known about the relationship between hedonic and utilitarian attitudes and different loyalty dimensions.
This conceptual paper is an endeavor to fill this gap and provide related propositions for future research.
Key words: loyalty, attitudinal loyalty, behavioural loyalty, hedonic attitude, utilitarian attitude, trust,
commitment.
Running Head: I DO IT BECAUSE I BELIEVE IT: RECONSIDERATION OF LOYALTY IN
REGARD TO ITS ATTUTUDINAL ANTECEDENTS
Consumer loyalty is generally considered the ultimate goal of relational marketing. On the other
hand, hedonic and utilitarian attitudes are important antecedents of consumer behaviour. However, little is
known about the relationship between hedonic and utilitarian attitudes and different loyalty dimensions.
This theoretical gap is the main focus of this research. For example, the economic view argues that a
price reduction leads to increased product demand based on utilitarian attitudes, which in turn lead to
behavioural loyalty (e.g. re-purchase). However, we propose that creating hedonic attitudes (e.g. by
means of signalling identity) affects attitudinal loyalty by way of a separate channel and, consequently,
impacts behavioural loyalty. This research aims to investigate the attitude-loyalty relationship and address
the following research questions: 1. what are the aspects of behavioural and attitudinal loyalty? 2. how do
hedonic and utilitarian attitudes impact attitudinal and behavioural loyalty, 3. how is attitudinal loyalty
related to behavioural loyalty? and 4. how do key relational mediators such as trust and commitment
function in the attitude-loyalty relationship?
Context
Loyalty has several advantages such as greater market share, higher relative prices, lower marketing
costs, greater trade leverage, and favourable word of mouth (Chaudhuri & Halbrook, 2001; Dick & Basu,
1994; Keller, 1993). It is cheaper to maintain loyal consumers than to attract new ones; hence,
maintaining loyal customers is one of the primary competitive advantages for many companies (Yu &
Dean, 2001; Sheth & Parvatiyar, 1995). Furthermore, loyalty leads to emotional attachment to products
and firms, creates consumer communities, verifies consumer identity and leads to relationship satisfaction
(Crosby, Evans, & Cowles, 1990; De Wulf, Odekerken-Schröder, & Iacobucci, 2001; Fournier, 1998;
Bagozzi & Dholakia, 2006). The question of how consumers become loyal has been the subject of many
research studies. For example, Oliver (1999) states that loyalty is formed in different stages. Consumers
become loyal in a cognitive sense, which afterwards affects preferences and attitudes, intentions,
relational trust and commitment and, finally, behaviour. But Oliver’s loyalty formation process is more
Running Head: I DO IT BECAUSE I BELIEVE IT: RECONSIDERATION OF LOYALTY IN
REGARD TO ITS ATTUTUDINAL ANTECEDENTS
complex than he initially expressed, and our research will explicate the attitude-loyalty relationship more
fully.
It is argued that consumers perceive a product or service based on what they have learned, felt,
seen, and heard over time (Aaker, 1991; Homer, 2008). Such meaning includes not only functional,
utilitarian, and rational benefits, but also hedonic, emotional, and sensory properties, such as image and
brand personalities (Aaker, 1997; Homer, 2008). Hedonic motives represent the emotional sensation
derived from experiencing the product, while utilitarian motives are driven from functions performed by
the product itself (Voss, Spangenberg, & Grohmann, 2003; Batra & Ahtola, 1990). Researchers have
shown the influence of hedonic and utilitarian attitudes on loyalty (Chaudhuri & Halbrook, 2001; Oliver,
1999; Sirdeshmukh et al., 2002), which in turn is mediated by trust and commitment (Berry 1995;
Garbarino & Johnson, 1999; Moorman Deshpande & Zaltman, 1993; Morgan & Hunt 1994).
Furthermore, commitment is also an essential ingredient for loyalty (Dwyer, Schurr, & Oh, 1987; Morgan
& Hunt, 1994; Oliver, 1999; Toufaily, Ricard, & Perrien, 2013). Altogether, the relationship is
epitomized by the degree of consumer loyalty created by trust, and connected to specific attitudes. Our
contribution is to link attitudes to loyalty and assess the direct and mediated impacts upon several loyalty
dimensions.
Model
Early theorists viewed loyalty as simply behavioural (i.e., repurchase actions), while others have
suggested that a complete evaluation of loyalty should include assessment of consumer beliefs, affects,
and attitudes (Oliver, 1999). Accepted definitions of loyalty include both behavioural and attitudinal
aspects (Chaudhuri & Holbrook, 2001). For example, while repurchasing is one of the behavioural
aspects, sensitivity to some unique value is one of the attitudinal aspects (Aaker, 1991; Chaudhuri &
Holbrook, 2001; Oliver, 1999). Although it has been empirically shown that attitudinal loyalty influences
behavioural loyalty (Bandyopadhyay & Martell, 2007), the fact is that little is known about the
Running Head: I DO IT BECAUSE I BELIEVE IT: RECONSIDERATION OF LOYALTY IN
REGARD TO ITS ATTUTUDINAL ANTECEDENTS
relationship. To investigating this theoretical gap, we will identify and test several dimensions of
attitudinal and behavioural loyalty in a comprehensive model to investigate not only the relation to each
other but also the effect of various hedonic and utilitarian attitudes, and trust on each component of
attitudinal and behavioural loyalty. In the proposed study, attitudinal loyalty components include (1)
relationship satisfaction, (2) continuance commitment, (3) emotional attachment/ affective commitment to
the product/service/or brand, and (4) identification. Behavioural loyalty components include (1)
repurchase intention, (2) word-of-mouth (advocacy), and (3) co-operation. Thus, our theoretical model
proposes to explain in detail how specific hedonic and utilitarian attitudes impact several dimensions of
attitudinal and behavioural loyalty through the mediation of trust (See figure 1). Whereas price reductions
may lead to positive utilitarian attitudes, which ultimately impact repurchase intention (i.e., behavioural
loyalty), identification with the product or brand may increase attachment to the product and impact
attitudinal loyalty. Our research propositions will focus on the specific logical linkages between hedonic
and utilitarian attitudes, and attitudinal and behavioural loyalty, mediated by trust. Thus we state
propositions below.
P1: Attitudinal loyalty positively predicts behavioral loyalty.
P2a,b,c: Relationship satisfaction (a) is positively related to repurchase intention and (b) positively
influences WOM and (c) poaitively influences consumer cooperation.
P3a,b,c: Commitment is positively related to behavioural loyalty and its components including (a)
repurchase intention, (b) WOM, and (c) co-operation.
P4a,b,c: Emotional attachment/affective commitment is positively related to (a) repurchase
intention, (b) WOM, and (c) co-operation.
P5a,b,c: Consumer identification with a brand/firm/product or service positively influences (a)
repurchase intention, (b) WOM, and (c) co-operation.
P6: Hedonic attitudes positively affect trust.
Running Head: I DO IT BECAUSE I BELIEVE IT: RECONSIDERATION OF LOYALTY IN
REGARD TO ITS ATTUTUDINAL ANTECEDENTS
P7: Utilitarian attitudes positively affect trust.
P8a,b: Consumer trust predicts both (a) attitudinal and (b) behavioral loyalty.
P8b
Attitudinal Loyalty
Behavioural Loyalty
Hedonic
Attitudes
Relationship satisfaction
Purchase intention
P6
Trust
P8a
Commitment
P1
WOM
Emotional attachment
Utilitarian
Attitudes
P7
Co-operation
Identification
Figure 1: Theoretically-based model of attitudes, trust, attitudinal and behavioural loyalty.
Method
For testing our propositions we plan to have two data collection phases. Phase one is exploratory
and employs in-depth interviews to ascertain relevant hedonic and utilitarian attitudes, and attitudinal and
behavioural loyalty dimensions, which are specific to the financial services industry. This phase is vital
for developing appropriate measurement scales for phase two. The second phase uses a survey (Internet
based) approach to collect data from real-world financial service consumers. We also plan to conduct a
pilot study using student participants to fine-tune our understanding of the scales and the functional
relationships among the model’s variables prior to launching the main study. Afterwards, the main study
will commence with a survey of financial services users drawn from a sample frame provided by industry
Running Head: I DO IT BECAUSE I BELIEVE IT: RECONSIDERATION OF LOYALTY IN
REGARD TO ITS ATTUTUDINAL ANTECEDENTS
contacts. From previous work with the sample frames, we expect to draw unbiased and representative
sample elements from the selected population. We will use established scaling measures for all our
variables specifically adjusted for the financial services sector. The main dependent variables of this
study are the attitudinal and behavioural loyalty components and the key independent variables are
dimensions of hedonic and utilitarian attitudes. The key study mediators are trust and attitudinal loyalty
components. In addition, we will enter robust data by preparing and coding the collected information
prior to data analysis. We will utilize Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) in order to test the
significance of our study variables and evaluation of our model.
Contribution to the advancement of knowledge
An important contribution of this study is to empirically determine whether hedonic and utilitarian
attitudes differently affect components of attitudinal/behavioural loyalty or if the relationships are
mediated by trust and commitment. In other words, we propose that loyalty depends on the attitudes that
are stimulated. Our recent study showed that utilitarian rather than hedonic attitudes are main predictors
of trust, which consequently affects consumer loyalty. Moreover, hedonic attitudes are not directly
important antecedents of trust, rather, through their effect on utilitarian attitudes, indirectly affect trust
and loyalty (Akhgari, Bruning, & Bruning, 2013). The study was limited in a number of ways, and the
proposed dissertation adjusts and builds on this work. From the managerial point of view, our proposed
model is important to firms that will use the results to justify expenditures on creating long term
relationship elements including trust and loyalty. For example, RBC has attitudinally loyal consumers
because its identity relates to consumers’ needs for safety, security and stability. They also have
behaviourally loyal customers because they offer competitive rates and ancillary services that enhance the
economic value customers receive. Our work will pinpoint specific attitudes that impact specific types of
loyalty as well as trust.
Running Head: I DO IT BECAUSE I BELIEVE IT: RECONSIDERATION OF LOYALTY IN
REGARD TO ITS ATTUTUDINAL ANTECEDENTS
References
Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behaviour. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc. DOI (doi:10.1234/12345678).
Akhgari, M., Bruning, E., & Bruning, S. (2013). The Effect of Executive Compensation and Financial
Returns on Bank Loyalty. In ASAC conference, Calgary, AB, Canada.
Chaudhuri, A. & Holbrook, M. B. (2001). The chain of effects from brand trust and brand affect to brand
performance: the role of brand loyalty. Journal of Marketing, 62(2), 81-93.
Garbarino, E., & Johnson, M. S. (1999). The different roles of satisfaction, trust, and commitment in
customer relationships. Journal of Marketing, 63(2), 70-87.
Homer, P. M. (2008). Perceived quality and image: when all is not ‘rosy. Journal of Business Research.
61,715-723.
Morgan, Robert M., & Hunt, Shelby D. (1994). The commitment-trust theory of relationship marketing.
Journal of Marketing, 58(3) , 20-38.
Oliver, R. L. (1999). Whence consumer loyalty? Journal of Marketing, 33-44.
ABSTRACTS
A Multiple Criteria Senior Segmentation: The Case of French Market
Yamen Koubaa, France Business School, France
Rym Srarfi Tabbane, University of Tunis, Tunisia
Manel Hamouda, University of Tunis, Tunisia
Abstract
To target the French senior market as a heterogeneous group, a multivariate market segmentation based
on multiple criteria was conducted on this study. Four senior clusters have been identified. The study
provides practical recommendations for each cohort.
ABSTRACTS
All for One, One for All?
Franchisor-Franchisee Interdependence, Governance, and Bankruptcy
Kersi Antia, University of Western, Canada
Sudha Mani, William Paterson University, United States
Kenneth Wathne, University Of Stavanger, Norway
Abstract
We undertake a census of bankruptcy filings by 1,130 franchisors and franchisees over thirteen
years, relating these to governance mechanisms relied on by both parties. Incentives and monitoring are
associated with a higher (lower) likelihood of franchisor (franchisee) bankruptcy. We also find franchise
system failure rates to be significantly overstated.
ABSTRACTS
Scandale de marque! Comprendre les rôles et les pratiques des médias lors d’un scandale
impliquant une marque-personne
Elodie Beroard, HEC Montréal, Canada
Marie-Agnès Parmentier, HEC Montréal, Canada
Résumé
En 2005, le mannequin Kate Moss a vécu un scandale médiatique qui a considérablement
perturbé son parcours et son image de marque. L’analyse du discours des médias, touchant trois
magazines distincts durant un an, a permis de mettre en lumière les pratiques d’interprétation des acteurs
médiatiques modelant l’image de marque en lien avec le scandale. Les résultats nous offrent un aperçu
des différents rôles et pratiques des médias, lesquels influencent l’évolution du capital de la marque.
Mots-clés : marque-personne; capital de marque; biographie de marque; média; scandale.
ABSTRACTS
The Effect of Self-Complexity on Consumer Judgement of Losses
Najam Saqib, Qatar University, Qatar
Amit Das, Qatar University, Qatar
Abstract
Research in psychology suggests that greater self-complexity reflected in multiple selfaspects moderates the adverse impact of negative events and stress. This model of selfcomplexity is applied to consumer judgments involving losses in this research. Our findings
suggest that high self-complexity improves consumers’ decisions by making them less loss
averse.
ABSTRACTS
Effect of Consumer Incompetence on Negative Word-of-Mouth
Matthew Philp, Queen’s University, Canada
Laurence Ashworth, Queen’s University, Canada
Abstract
This research examines how the fear of appearing as an incompetent consumer can motivate a
consumer to not share negative word of mouth (NWOM). While negative consumption experiences
frequently lead to NWOM, we show that when consumers feel incompetent for the initial purchase,
NWOM is reduced
ABSTRACTS
Why to Consume What Does Not Exist? The Case of Second Life
Mahshid Omid (Student), Université Laval, Canada
Abstract
Virtual consumption is a growing consumer practice in which much time and money is spent on
what lacks material presence. It undermines classical theories of consumption based on rational needs and
economic utility and may influence real-world consumption. Doing a qualitative study we found five
important motivations for virtual consumption.
Keywords: virtual consumption, virtual worlds, Second Life, motivation
ABSTRACTS
Combination of MCDM Methods in Ranking Insurance Product Portfolio (A Case Study in Parsian
Insurance Co.)
Mahshid Sadat Mohammadi Jahromi, Tarbiat Modares University, Canada
Adel Azar, Tarbiat Modares University, Iran
Ali Rajabzadeh, Tarbiat Modares University, Iran
Abstract
MCDM techniques are used to facilitate product portfolio decision making complexity. In real word
as a case study which carried out of more than 40 experts in to investigate a beneficial rank of product
portfolio insurance industry. Determining effective criteria in insurance product portfolio while defining
two significant criteria and ranking insurance services.
Key words: Product Portfolio, MCDM Techniques, Decision Making, Insurance
ABSTRACTS
The Impact of Web-Mining Tools on Prospective Web Customers Profiling and Acquisition
Myriam Ertx, Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada
Raoul Graf, Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada
Abstract
Research on how Web-Mining (WM) optimizes marketing, is sparse. Especially absent, is research
on WM usefulness for Customer Relationship Management (CRM). The authors propose a Web Miningenabled knowledge acquisition framework for analytical CRM. They show to what extent WM enables to
segment prospective web customers and to acquire them.
ABSTRACTS
Human Versus Synthetic Voice: The Impact on Social Presence, Trust and Behavioral Intention
Emna Cherif, Univeristé Paris 1 Panthéon Sorbonne, France
Jean-François Lemoine Univeristé Paris 1 Panthéon Sorbonne, France
Abstract:
This paper aims to demonstrate the influence that recommendation agent type voice (human versus
synthetic) may have on consumers reactions. The findings suggest that the human voice is likely to
provide a higher level of social presence and agent trust. Moreover, social presence has a positive effect
both on agent trust and intentions. In turn, agent trust influences website trust and intentions.
Keywords: recommendation agent, human vs. synthetic voice, social presence, trust
ABSTRACTS
Supermarket Innovation in the Presence of Non-traditional Competition
Robert Thomson, Universite de Sherbrooke, Canada
Abstract
The proliferation of non-traditional competitors has put conventional supermarkets into a structural
competitive disadvantage. In accordance with the conference theme of innovation and sustainability, an
endogenous store performance-based business model is presented that promises to facilitate innovative
marketing strategies designed to render conventional supermarkets more relevant and customer-centric.
Keywords: Innovation; Supermarket, Endogenous, Business Model
ABSTRACTS
Offering Experiential Values to Improve Customers Attitudes towards Websites: A Comparison of
Goods and Services Websites
Saeed Shobeiri, Université de Sherbrooke, Canada
Ebrahim Mazaheri, Laurentian University, Canada
Michel Laroche, Concordia University, Canada
Abstract
This study aims to investigate how provisions of experiential values by an online store improve
customers’ attitudes toward the services and physical goods websites. Data has been collected from 107
services customers and 110 physical goods customers through a survey of actual shopping experiences;
the findings support the majority of the study’s hypotheses. Specifically, the results suggest that offering
experiential values on the website positively increase customers’ attitudes towards both physical goods
and services websites. The results further indicated that the influence is stronger for services oriented
websites compared to physical goods websites.
Key words: experiential values; e-retailer; attitudes toward website; physical goods, services.
ABSTRACTS
L’effet de la compensation sur l'équité perçue: le rôle modérateur de l’engagement affectif
Anis Chtourou, ESC Troyes, France
Résumé :
Cette recherche a pour objectif d’étudier l’efficacité de la compensation pour la récupération de
service suite à une défaillance. Une expérimentation avec des scénarios a été effectuée dans le cadre d’un
service de restauration. Les résultats ont montré que, suite à une défaillance du service, la compensation
offerte à des clients fortement engagés à l’égard de l’entreprise n’a un impact positif sur l’équité perçue
que lorsque l’entreprise est responsable de la défaillance. En revanche, une compensation offerte à des
clients faiblement engagés a un impact positif sur l’équité perçue quelle que soit la responsabilité de
l’entreprise dans la défaillance.
Mots-clés : récupération de service, compensation, équité perçue, engagement affectif.
ABSTRACTS
When is Sustainability a Liability Versus an Asset in Hedonic Products
Leila Kamali, Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada
Tripat Gill, Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada
Abstract
We propose a theoretical framework to predict when do sustainable attributes enhance versus
reduce consumer preference for hedonic products. Specifically, we propose two factors that determine
these effects: (1) whether the sustainability is in the core versus non-core attribute of the product and (2)
whether the effects of sustainability are congruent versus incongruent with the benefits of the hedonic
product. It is posited that sustainability increases preference for a hedonic product when sustainability is
congruent with the core benefit or when it occurs in a non-core attribute. This is due to the positive effects
of sustainability on the perceived quality as well as pro-social benefits of the product. Pro-social benefits
also reduce the perceived guilt associated with hedonic consumption. But when sustainability is
incongruent with the core benefits it reduces preference for the hedonic product as it has a negative effect
on the perceived quality of the product. An experimental study is described to test these propositions and
theoretical / managerial contributions are discussed.
ABSTRACTS
Le comportement social virtuel du consommateur et la gestion sociale virtuelle par l’organisation:
Une revue de la littérature
Amin Othmani, Université de Sherbrooke, Canada
Résumé
Cet article présente une revue de la littérature en marketing portant sur les médias sociaux. Deux
thèmes majeurs sont ressortis : le comportement social virtuel du consommateur et la gestion sociale
virtuelle par l’organisation. Un éventail d’avenues de recherche est présenté pour chacun des thèmes.
Mots clés : médias sociaux, comportement social virtuel, gestion sociale virtuelle.
ABSTRACTS
The Role of Money in Psychological Tensions
Hamed Aghakhani (Student), University of Manitoba, Canada
Mehdi Akhgari (Student), University of Manitoba, Canada
Kelley Main), University of Manitoba, Canada
Abstract
The author examines negative psychological consequences of money such as stress, anxiety,
depression. Results of two experiments reveal that (1) reminders of the concept of money increases
psychological tensions, (2) and reminders of possessing low denominations of money such as coins
increase the owner’s psychological tension. Theoretical and managerial contributions are discussed.
ABSTRACTS
Do the Order and Repetition of Mere Exposure to Green Products and Purchase Intention Impact
the Priming and Llicensing Effects?
Jianning Huang, University of Lethbridge, Canada
Debra Basil, University of Lethbridge, Canada
Abstract
In today’s society, consumers’ choices on products are not only based on price and quality but also
based on social and moral norms. Driven by the significantly growing demand for organic, energy
efficient and environmentally friendly products (hereafter, these products are all referred to as green
products), we have witnessed the revenue growth of these products. Against such a background,
consumers gain more and more mere exposure to green products. According to existing literature, mere
exposure to green products and purchase of these products lead to different human behavior. Specifically,
the behavior of consumers who have gained mere exposure to green products tends to be more ethical
which reflects the priming effect whereas the behavior of consumers who have purchased green products
tends to be less ethical which reflects the licensing effect. However, whether the order and repetition of
mere exposure to and/or purchase of green products make any difference on consumers’ behavior has
received little or no attention. In this project, we designed an experiment to look into this relatively
unexplored area in an effort to fill this gap. We generally find support for priming and licensing effects,
with mixed support for order effects.

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