Thinking, Language and Concepts mental image concept formal concept natural concept prototype Kosslyn et. al. (1978) scanning of mental images Wohlschlager & Wohlschlager (1998)—Two these threes are backward. Which ones? Decision-Making Strategies Single-feature model Additive model Elimination by aspects model Availability heuristic—readily available Representativeness heuristic—prototype • In another study, subjects were asked, “If a random word is taken from an English text, is it more likely that the word starts with a K, or that K is the third letter?” Most English-speaking people could immediately think of many words that begin with the letter "K" (kangaroo, kitchen, kale), but it would take a more concentrated effort to think of any words where "K" is the third letter (acknowledge). Results indicated that participants overestimated the number of words that began with the letter “K”, but underestimated the number of words that had “K” as the third letter. Researchers concluded that people answer questions like these by comparing the availability of the two categories and assessing how easily they can recall these instances. In other words, it is easier to think of words that begin with "K", than words with "K" as the third letter. Thus, people judge words beginning with a "K" to be a more common occurrence. In reality, however, a typical text contains twice as many words that have "K" as the third letter than "K" as the first letter. Additionally, there are three times as many words that have the letter "K" in the third position, as have it in the first position.[1] • Tversky, A; Kahneman (1973). "Availability: A heuristic for judging frequency and probability". Cognitive Psychology 5 (1): 207–233. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(73)90033-9. Problem-Solving Strategies Trial and error Algorithm Heuristic availability representativeness Insight Intuition Functional fixedness Mental set Belief-bias effect—accept and reject or ignore Confirmation bias—actively search Fallacy of positive instances—remember Overestimation effect—overestimate the rarity Why does the human brain do this? Which of these is most problematic? Sheena Iyengar on the art of choosing | Video on TED.com: http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/eng/sheena_iyengar_on_the_art_of_choosing.html Dan Gilbert on our mistaken expectations | Video on TED.com: http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/eng/dan_gilbert_researches_happiness.html Dan Ariely asks, Are we in control of our own decisions? | Video on TED.com: http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/eng/dan_ariely_asks_are_we_in_control_of_our_own_d ecisions.html Barry Schwartz on the paradox of choice | Video on TED.com: http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/eng/barry_schwartz_on_the_paradox_of_choice.html Language Symbolic Arbitrary Shared Structured and rule governed—syntax Creative and generative Allows for displacement Does language influence thought, or does thought influence language? Reinforces or minimizes stereotypes Pronoun usage Masculine and feminine prescriptions Sapir-Whorf linguistic relativity hypothesis Do animals have language? How is it similar and different from ours? Bonobo chimpanzee (Matata), infant son (Kanzi) Measuring Intelligence—Can you measure intelligence? Alfred Binet-mental age Lewis Terman—IQ (mental age/actual age X 100) Army Alpha (written) and Army Beta (oral) test David Wechsler—WAIS, WISC Achievement test and aptitude test Standardization—norms, normal curve/distribution, reliability, validity Nature of Intelligence—Can you operationally define intelligence? Spearman—g factor Thurstone—pattern of seven mental abilities Gardner—multiple intelligences Sternberg—triarchic theory (analytic, creative, practical) With which theorist/theory do you most agree? Why? Is intelligence nature or nurture informed? Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences McGue et. al, 1993 Is intelligence more nature or nurture informed? The Effects of Stereotype Threat on the Standardized Test Performance of College Students, J. Aronson, C.M. Steele, M.F. Salinas, M.J. Lustina - Readings About the Social Animal, 8th edition, E. Aronson http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotype_threat
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