Environmental Pollution from Illegal Waste Disposal and Health

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12, 1216-1236; doi:10.3390/ijerph120201216
OPEN ACCESS
International Journal of
Environmental Research and
Public Health
ISSN 1660-4601
www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph
Review
Environmental Pollution from Illegal Waste Disposal and
Health Effects: A Review on the “Triangle of Death”
Maria Triassi 1, Rossella Alfano 1, Maddalena Illario 2, Antonio Nardone 1, Oreste Caporale 1
and Paolo Montuori 1,*
1
2
Department of Public Health, “Federico II” University, Naples 80131, Italy;
E-Mails: [email protected] (M.T.); [email protected] (R.A.);
[email protected] (A.N.); [email protected] (O.C.)
Department of Traslational Medical Science, “Federico II” University, Naples 80131, Italy;
E-Mail: [email protected]
* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: [email protected];
Tel: +039-081-746-3027.
Academic Editor: Oladele A. Ogunseitan
Received: 16 December 2014 / Accepted: 15 January 2015 / Published: 22 January 2015
Abstract: The term “triangle of death” was used for the first time by Senior and Mazza in
the journal The Lancet Oncology referring to the eastern area of the Campania Region
(Southern Italy) which has one of the worst records of illegal waste dumping practices. In
the past decades, many studies have focused on the potential of illegal waste disposal to
cause adverse effects on human health in this area. The great heterogeneity in the findings,
and the bias in media communication has generated great healthcare doubts, anxieties and
alarm. This paper addresses a review of the up-to-date literature on the “triangle of death”,
bringing together the available information on the occurrence and severity of health effects
related to illegal waste disposal. The Scopus database was searched using the search terms
“waste”, “Campania”, “Naples”, “triangle of death” and “human biomonitoring”. Despite
the methodological and sampling heterogeneity between the studies, this review examines
the evidence from published data concerning cancer incidence, childhood mortality and
birth defects, so that the current situation, knowledge gaps and research priorities can be
established. The review aims to provide a contribution to the scientific community, and to
respond to the concerns of the general population.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12
Keywords: Campania
human biomonitoring
Region;
1217
landfill;
incineration;
waste;
human
health;
1. Introduction
The term “triangle of death” was used for the first time by Senior and Mazza in the journal The
Lancet Oncology referring to the eastern area of the Campania Region (Southern Italy) which has one
of the worst records of illegal waste dumping practices [1]. Since 1980, waste management in
Campania region has been characterized by crisis [2]. This waste crisis in the Campania Region has
resulted in the widely documented illegal disposal of urban, toxic and industrial wastes [2–5]. The
environmental impacts of illegal waste disposal led to the deterioration of land, as well as ground and
surface water, also impacting air quality.
Waste impact depends on waste composition and illegal disposal practices [6]. Waste composition
consists of several types of substances, particularly toxic waste coming from the last phase of the
industrial activities: copper, arsenic, mercury, polychlorinated biphenyls, hydrocarbons, etc. [4]. Waste
disposal practices include illegal burying in areas not legally designated as toxic waste dump sites such
as cultivable areas, roads and buildings and construction yards [7]. Furthermore, in the “triangle of
death” area, illegal waste burning and the fires set up by residents to burn garbage bags piled up in the
streets have contributed significantly to the increase in environmental pollution, particularly of
dioxins [8]. Environmental pollution of waste dumping affects health through both short and long-term
effects [9,10]. Examples of short-term effects are congenital anomalies, asthma and respiratory
infection [11,12]. General symptoms such as stress, anxiety, headache, dizziness, nausea, eye and
respiratory irritation have been also described [13]. Long-term health effects related to waste exposure
include chronic respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, cancer and even brain, nerves, liver,
lymphohematopoietic or kidneys diseases [14–16].
In the past decades, many studies in the area of “triangle of death” have focused on the potential
health effects of illegal waste disposal, but they have generated heterogeneous results. Some authors,
such as Senior and Mazza [1], concluded that the high level of cancer mortality in the area can be
linked to the level of pollution caused by inadequate waste-control methods and by illegal dumping.
Others discount any significant impact of waste mismanagement on public health [17–20]. This
heterogeneity among studies and especially bias in media communication generated healthcare doubts,
anxieties and alarms among residents that have organized committees and associations [21]. In recent
years, these committees and associations have consistently raised the issue of the health effects
resulting from the waste crisis in Campania, and many disputes and disagreements took place among
local governance structures and the population. In order to solve this problem, in March 2014 the
Italian Government adopted a special decree, which allocated 25€ million yearly (for 2014 and 2015)
for “health screening” of Campania residents. Based on a systematic review of the up-to-date “triangle
of death” literature, the present study brings together the information on the occurrence, severity and
potential health effects of illegal waste disposal., This review analyzes the evidence from published
data concerning cancer, childhood mortality, birth defects and human biomonitoring, despite the
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12
1218
methodological and sampling heterogeneity between studies, in order to establish the current situation,
knowledge gaps and research priorities. Thus, this review aims not only to provide a contribution to
the scientific community, but also to contribute to address the concerns of the population.
2. Materials and Methods
The review was conducted in two stages. In the first stage, articles were retrieved via online Scopus
database searching. The following keywords and combinations of keywords were used: “waste”,
“Campania”, “Naples”, “triangle of death” and “human biomonitoring”. Articles were limited to those
that were published in English/Italian-language journals from January 2001 to August 2014. During
the second stage, titles and abstracts of articles were independently reviewed by two researchers to
assess eligibility for inclusion. If there was any uncertainty, the full text article was retrieved.
Disagreements were solved after discussion with a third researcher. Primary publications on
waste-related health effects and human biomonitoring studies in the population living in Campania
Region were the subject of this review. Other types of papers (environmental impact estimate, waste
management, environmental sentinels) were only consulted in order to integrate the relevant available
scientific information.
Our initial searches generated 100 hits, which were screened leading to removal of 87 records,
leaving 13 full text articles that were evaluated. In addition, four more articles, traced through
references listed in review articles, were included. For each of the considered health outcome, the
results obtained on Campania residents were compared to the health effects in residents living near
landfills and incinerators [9,10,13,22]. Even though in Campania no incinerator has been operating
since 2009, we referred to the literature on incinerators for the extensive practice of illegally setting
fires to urban and hazardous waste.
3. Results
Seventeen papers (only one review) on health effects of waste exposure and human biomonitoring
in Campania were evaluated. Areas under study included: Naples province; Caserta province;
Giugliano, Qualiano; Villaricca and the “triangle of death” (between Acerra, Nola and Marigliano)
(Figure 1). Ten papers investigated health effects. All cancers, specific cancers, childhood mortality
and birth defects were the health outcomes we considered. All cancers, neoplasms of liver, lung,
larynx, bladder, leukemia and lymphoma were evaluated by seven studies; colorectal cancer, sarcoma,
childhood mortally and birth defects were evaluated by six studies; gastric and kidney cancer were
evaluated by five studies. In some papers multiple outcomes were evaluated. Seven papers focused on
human biomonitoring: five investigated biomarkers of exposure and two investigated biomarkers of
early effect. The findings of these studies are mainly consistent with the previous review by
Barba et al. [23]. Two summary tables for health effects (Table 1) and human biomonitoring (Table 2),
respectively, are presented to show the results.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12
Figure 1. Maps of the study area. (a) Italy; (b) Campania Region (southern Italy);
(c) Location of main municipalities under study in southern part of Caserta Province and in
the northern part of Naples Province, including the “triangle of death” marked with red.
1219
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12
1220
3.1. Studies on Health Outcomes
3.1.1. All Cancers
The mortality observed in the other two municipalities was higher than expected by regional rates,
especially for females, even if it did not reach statistical significance [3]. Another ecological study
reported an excess of cancer death in the provinces of Naples and Caserta (196 municipalities)
compared with the expected deaths from regional rates, also confirmed by Bayesan estimators (Naples:
SMR = 106.1 for males; SMR = 107.3 for females; lower limit of 95% CI > 100. Caserta:
SMR = 102.5 for males; SMR = 102.9 for females; lower limit of 95% CI > 100) [17]. Furthermore,
the cancer mortality rate showed by Senior and Mazza in men living in the so called “triangle of death”
was higher than the regional standardized death rate (SDR) 321.7 vs. 301.8 per 100,000), even if no
confidence interval or standard error were reported [1]. None of these studies evaluated the exposure
assessment of the populations under study, the distance from legal or illegal waste sites or other
confounders. Information about exposure has been provided only by a trend analysis conducted in
Caserta and Naples municipalities [24]. Waste exposure was assessed through the waste exposure
index (WEI), an index of environmental pressure due to waste dumping activities described by
Musmeci et al. [25]. The analysis revealed a statistically significant excess of risk for all cancer of
6.6% (95% CI = 0.8–12.7) only for women living in the municipalities at highest WEI compared with
baseline [24]. SENTIERI project revealed a significant mortality risk for all cancers in the
contaminated site of National concern composed by 77 municipalities of Caserta and Naples Provinces
when compared to mortality expected from the Italian rate, also after adjusting for deprivation index
(DI) [SMR DI = 109 (90% CI = 108–111) in males; SMR DI = 105 (90% CI = 102–107) in
females] [26]. On the contrary, no statistically significant increase of mortality risk for total cancers
was found by two other studies [19,27], considering both WEI and DI.
These results are in contrast with recent evidences on health effect associated with the management
of solid waste. Indeed, for total cancers two reviews support an inadequate level of evidence to
indicate a role for solid waste [9,10,13], whereas limited [9] or inadequate [13] evidence has been
reported for incinerators.
3.1.2. Liver
A geographical study pointed out a very high statistically significant increase of mortality for liver
cancer in females (SMR = 181.13; lower limit of 95% CI > 100) in a municipality characterized by
multiple dumping sites, compared to Campania Region rates [3]. Senior and Mazza described very
high mortality rate for liver cancer in the “triangle of death” compared with rates seen in Campania
(SDR 35.9 vs. 15 per 100,000 in men; 20.5 vs. 8.5 in women), but no confidence interval was
reported [1]. Comba et al. reported excesses of death for liver cancer in Naples province compared
with the expected deaths from regional rates (SMR = 117.6 in men; SMR = 114.1 in women; lower
limit of 95% CI > 100), while statistical significance was not reached for Caserta Province [17].
A further cluster analysis of the same municipalities revealed three clusters of liver cancer in the
southern part of Caserta Province and in the northern part of Naples Province [19]. The analysis was
standardized by a deprivation index taking into account education, unemployment, housing ownership,
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12
1221
surface of dwelling and family structure as possible socioeconomic confounders. In addition, a trend
analysis confirmed an excess risk for liver cancer of 19.3% (95% CI = 1.4–40.3) and 29.1% (95%
CI = 7.6–54.8) in men and women respectively in municipalities at highest environmental pressure
assessed by waste index category compared with baseline [24]. A significant increase of risk of liver
cancer, in term of standardized incidence ratios (SIR), hierarchical Bayesian estimators (BIR) and
cluster analysis (BIR = 1.41, 95% CI = 1.17–1.68; BIR = 1.57; 95% CI = 1.28–1.89), was also
detected in a two municipalities located in the northern part of Naples Province [27]. The study also
detected a positive trend across WEI groups, but statistical significance was not reached. SENTIERI
project revealed a significant mortality risk for liver cancer in the contaminated site of National
concern composed by 77 municipalities of Caserta and Naples Provinces [SMR adjusted for DI = 125
(90% CI = 117–134) in males; SMR adjusted for deprivation =126 (90% CI = 114–140) in
females] [26]. Remarkably, none of the reviewed studies took into account confounders (alcohol,
smoking, hepatitis) other than socioeconomic ones, which strongly influence liver cancer development
in the province of Naples in particular [28], where HCV and HBV infections are widespread [29].
The association between liver cancer, waste disposal and incinerator has been recently disconfirmed
by several evidences reported in the literature [9,30], although a review found limited association with
proximity to incinerator plants [10].
3.1.3. Lung
Altavista et al. pointed out a statistically significant increase of mortality for lung cancer especially
for females in two out of three municipalities under study compared to Campania Region rates (SMR:1st
municipality = 121.85, 2nd municipality = 120.94 for males; SMR 2nd municipality = 176.94 for
females; lower limit of 95% CI > 100) [3]. Similar results were reported by four other studies: Comba
et al. revealed excess of death for lung cancer in the provinces of Naples and Caserta compared with
the expected deaths from regional rates [SMR = 114.1 (males)–126.5 (females); lower limit of 95%
CI > 100] [17]; two other studies showed two clusters of lung cancer in the southern part of Caserta
Province and in the northern part of Naples Province [19,27]; a trend analysis revealed only in males
of the same municipalities of Naples and Caserta a statistically significant excess relative risk of (95%
CI = 0.4–3.3) of death for lung cancer with the increase of waste index category [24]. In contrast,
Senior and Mazza described a mortality rate for lung cancer in the “triangle of death” equivalent to the
rates seen in Campania (SDR 97.8 vs. 97.4 per 100,000 in men; no CI or standard error reported) [1]
and no excess of death for lung cancer arose from SENTIERI project [26]. All the studies didn’t
evaluate smoking habits or other confounders and are therefore difficult to interpret. No association
between lung cancer, waste disposal and incinerators has nowadays been described in the literature [9],
even if a review found a limited association with proximity to incinerator plants [10].
3.1.4. Larynx
Altavista et al. pointed out an increase of mortality for larynx cancer in three municipalities
characterized by multiple dumping sites, compared to Campania Region rates, but statistical
significance was reached only in one municipality for males (SMR = 211.85; lower limit of 95%
CI > 100) and in one municipality for females (SMR = 339.42; lower limit of 95% CI > 100) [3].
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12
1222
Senior and Mazza described a higher mortality rate for larynx cancer in men living in the “triangle of
death” compared with Campania rates (SDR 12.8 vs. 8.7 per 100,000; no CI or ES reported) [1].
Another ecological study confirmed the increase of mortality for larynx cancer in males only in the
province of Naples (SMR = 111.8; lower limit of 95% CI > 100) [17]. Furthermore, the SENTIERI
project revealed a statistically significant mortality risk for larynx cancer in males living in the
contaminated site of national concern composed by 77 municipalities of Caserta and Naples Provinces
[SMR adjusted for deprivation = 115 (90% CI = 105‒127)] [26]. Even if data are concordant, no study
designs evaluated waste pressure in the residence areas and only the SENTIERI study took into
account socio-economic deprivation. Furthermore, these results are in contrast with the evidence
summarized by two reviews [9,10] and with the evaluation by the epidemiological evidence of
SENTIERI project that showed no association between larynx cancer and landfills or incinerators [22].
3.1.5. Bladder
Studies on bladder cancer are discordant. A geographical study pointed out a significant increase of
mortality for bladder in males living in a municipality characterized by multiple dumping sites,
compared to Campania Region rates (SMR = 130.12; lower limit of 95% CI > 100) [3]. Senior and
Mazza described a higher mortality rate for bladder cancer in men living in the “triangle of death”
compared with rates seen in Campania, while bladder cancer risk in women appeared lower than
regional rates (SDR 29.3 vs. 21.7 per 100,000 in males; 3.1 vs. 4,2 per 100,000 in females), even if no
confidence interval was reported [1]. Comba et al. reported excess of death for bladder cancer in the
provinces of Naples and Caserta compared with the expected deaths from regional rates (SMR = 110.7
in males; 117.5 in females; lower limit of 95% CI > 100) [17]. A cluster analysis of the same
municipalities revealed two significant clusters of bladder cancer in the southern part of Caserta
Province and in the northern part of Naples Province [19]. Three other studies revealed no risk of death
for bladder cancer in the same areas, adding information about intensity of waste-related exposure and
socio-economic deprivation [24,26,27].
Although not conclusive, these data are consistent with the literature on bladder cancer: two
reviews [9,10], the evaluation of the epidemiological evidence of SENTIERI project [22] and one
study on 15 landfills highlight an inadequate level of evidence to indicate a role for solid waste and
incinerators [30].
3.1.6. Stomach
A statistically significant decrease in mortality for gastric cancer was found by a geographical study
in males of a municipality of Naples characterized by multiple dumping sites compared to Campania
Region rates (SMR = 56.1; upper limit of 95% CI < 100) [3]. No risk arose from SENTIERI project in
the contaminated site of National concern composed by Caserta and Naples province [26]. By contrast,
Comba et al. reported statistically significant excess of death for gastric cancer in males living in the
province of Caserta compared with the expected deaths from regional rates (SMR= 129.3 in men;
SMR = 118.2 in women; lower limit of 95% CI > 100) [17]. A cluster analysis of the same
municipalities detected a big cluster of gastric cancer in the north-western part of Naples and
south-western part of Caserta Province, mainly due to male mortality [19]. These results were
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12
1223
confirmed by a trend analysis which revealed in men living in 35 municipalities of Caserta and Naples
a statistically significant excess relative risk (5.2%; 95% CI = 1.8‒8.7) of death for gastric cancer with
the increase of waste index category [24].
No association between gastric cancer and waste disposal and incinerator is supported by the last
evidences in the literature [9], even if two less recent studies found limited association with proximity
to incinerator plants [10,22].
3.1.7. Colorectal
The only study suggesting an increase of risk of colorectal cancer in the Campania Region is the
report of Senior and Mazza that described a higher mortality rate for colorectal cancer in women in the
“triangle of death” compared with rates seen in Campania (SDR 29 vs. 26.4 per 100,000), but no
confidence interval was reported [1]. No association was found by five other different
studies [3,17,19,26,27]. These results are consistent with the evidence summarized by a review, that
argues the association between colorectal cancer and waste disposal and incinerators [9], although a
less recent review found limited association with proximity to incinerator plants [10].
3.1.8. Leukemia and Lymphoma
Data reported by Senior and Mazza described higher mortality rates for leukemia in males living in
the “triangle of death” compared with rates seen in Campania (SDR 13.1 vs. 10.1 per 100,000), and
higher leukemia and lymphoma in both sexes living in this area than in the rest of Campania area, and
were referred to the “Local Health District Naples 4” [SDR 28.2 vs. 17.9 (in males); 18.7 vs. 16.1
(in females) per 100,000], even though the study didn’t provide any information about confidence
interval or exposure data [1]. On the other hand, no statistically significant excess of risk for leukemia
and lymphoma was found by Altavista et al. [3], nor was it found for non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL)
by Fazzo et al. [19]. Similar results were provided by another geographical study, except for an excess
of risk (SMR = 109.1; lower limit of 95% CI > 100) of NHL, found only in women living in the
province of Naples [17]. Taking into account the deprivation index, a study found statistically
significant excess of relative risk (5.7%; 95% CI = 0.2‒11.5) of death for NHL only in men with the
increase of waste index category [24]. Another study identified a statistically significant cluster of
leukemia in the total population of Naples Province [relative risk (RR) = 1.33; p-value = 0.05], as well
as a significant increase of risk for leukemia and NHL (in terms of SIR, however it was not confirmed
by BIR analysis) [27]. The SENTIERI Project found no significant increase of risk for leukemia or
lymphoma in the contaminated site of National concern composed by 77 municipalities of Caserta and
Naples Provinces [26].
Data from the literature are not conclusive with respect to association of leukemia and NHL with
waste management: no association between leukemia, NHL and landfills or incinerators is supported
by a recent review [9], while one study detected a significant risk for leukemia in residents near
benzene waste sites [31], and three more studies found limited association of NHL with proximity to
incinerator plants [10,22,30].
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12
1224
3.1.9. Kidney
An ecological study reported statistically significant excess of death for kidney cancer in females
living in the province of Naples compared with the expected deaths from regional rates (SMR = 120.7;
lower limit of 95% CI > 100) [17]. A cluster analysis found a cluster of kidney cancer in the total
population, located in the north-western part of Naples Province [19]. No excess of risk for kidney
cancer was found by three other studies, that also evaluated waste-exposure pressure and
socioeconomic confounders [24,26,27]. These results are consistent with recent literature on the health
impact of landfills and incinerators, that found inadequate evidence for a link to kidney cancer [9,10].
3.1.10. Soft-Tissue Sarcoma
A cluster analysis on 35 municipalities of Naples Province served by a Cancer Registry, revealed a
statistically significant cluster of soft-tissue sarcoma (STS), even if no correlation with waste exposure
index was detected [27]. Two previous geographical studies [17,19] and a trend analysis showed no
statistically significant increased risk of cancer death for STS [24]. A more recent geographical study
focused on the topic and found no significant increase in incidence of STS other than for
gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST) in males [SIR 2.04 (overall), 95% CI = 1.26‒3.11; SIR 2.20
(males), 95% CI = 1.10‒3.94; not significant SIR 1.88 (females), 95% CI = 0.90‒3.46] [32].
No evidence of association between STS and landfills is nowadays supported by the literature,
whereas limited association has been reported for people living in proximity of incinerators, in relation
to emissions of dioxins [9,10,22].
3.1.11. Childhood Mortality and Malformations
In the first pilot study on health effects to waste exposure in communities living in the Campania
Region, a significant risk increase was found for low birth weight, fetal distress and infantile cancers in
residents of some municipalities of Caserta, where waste dumping, both legal and illegal, were mainly
located [5]. Similar results arose from three studies: an ecological study reported increases of observed
birth defects, especially cardiovascular and urogenital malformations, in the provinces of Naples and
Caserta compared to the expected ones based on regional rates [17]. A cluster analysis of the same area
revealed statistically significant clusters of total congenital malformations (five clusters),
cardiovascular (two clusters), urogenital (three clusters) and limb malformations (only one
cluster) [19]. A trend analysis of the same municipalities revealed a statistically significant increasing
trend for urogenital anomalies [excess relative risk (ERR) = 13.8; 95%CI = 5l8 to 22l5] and a
decreasing trend for cardiovascular anomalies (ERR = −5.3; 95% CI = −9.4 to −1). Comparisons
between highest exposure waste municipalities and baseline were statistically significant for urogenital
(ERR = 82.7; 95% CI = 25.6–165.7) and nervous system malformations (ERR = 83.5; 95%
CI = 24.7–169.9) [24]. By contrast, no risk for congenital malformations was detected by
Altavista et al. in populations living in three municipalities of Campania Region characterized by
multiple dumping sites, although no information about exposure assessment or confounders was
provided [3]. The SENTIERI project detected no risk of death for congenital malformations for all
ages in the contaminated site of National concern composed by 77 municipalities of Caserta and
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12
1225
Naples Provinces and even a statistically decreased in risk when considering only 0–1 year children
[SMR adjusted for deprivation = 97 (90% CI = 88–106) for all ages; SMR adjusted for
deprivation = 90 (90% CI = 83–97) for 0–1 year children] [26].
Recent reviews on the potential health hazards of waste management found a limited evidence of
association between congenital malformations and living near landfills (of urogenital and nervous
systems) and incinerators (urogenital and orofacial) [9,11,13], although two previous reviews found a
limited evidence of higher risk of congenital anomalies in residents near landfills, and inadequate
evidence for people living near incinerators [10,22].
3.2. Studies on Human Biomonitoring
Six studies investigated the link between waste-related pollution and biomarkers assessment in
humans. Two studies identified high dioxin levels in breast milk of 94 primiparae living in Naples and
Caserta provinces, and detected a positive correlation with age of sampled women, illegal waste fires
and environmental dioxin risk index (EDR), that is an index based on dioxins concentrations in buffalo
milk samples [33,34]. Illegal waste fires appeared to be a more important determinant of dioxin
exposure in milk for women living in an area at low risk compared to high risk areas. Moreover,
shorter telomere length and lower telomerase activity were found in peripheral blood mononuclear
cells of healthy pregnant women living in north-east Naples area, who were affected by intense waste
pressure compared to women living in non-polluted area [35]. In a study on assessment of DNA
damage by Random Amplification of Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) in Paracentrotus lividus embryos
exposed to amniotic fluid, different polymorphisms were found in embryos exposed to amniotic fluid
from 15 residents living in north-east Naples area compared with those related non-polluted area
citizens (Avellino), giving evidence that pollution levels in the “triangle of death” adversely affected
human amniotic fluids [36]. On the contrary, a more recent study found PCDD/Fs and PCBs serum
level in the population living in the Naples area that were lower than current values observed in
populations living in exposed areas. Moreover the study detected no significant differences between
serum dioxin concentrations in people living in “triangle of death” and its surroundings [18]. Similarly,
a study on women living in Giugliano, a municipality affected by open-air waste combustion
accidents, found PCDD/Fs and PCBs levels in breast milk significantly lower compared with those of
donors from two cities highly polluted, that were Piacenza and Milan (Italy) [20]. Furthermore, the
SEBIOREC study found biomarkers’ concentrations in Campania region compatible with European
and Italian current values, excepted for a relative overexposure to some pollutants (As, Hg, dioxins)
detected in four municipalities of Naples characterized by high waste pressure [37].
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12
1226
Table 1. Summary table of studies on health effects.
Authors
Trinca et al.
(2001) [5]
Altavista et al.
(2004) [3]
Senior and
Mazza (2004) [1]
Study Design
Study Subjects
(Years of Observation)
Infant residents in 104
Geographical study
municipalities of Caserta
(1985–1994)
150000 residents in 3 municipalities
Geographical study
of Naples (Giugliano, Qualiano and
Villaricca) (1986–2000)
Geographical study
250000 residents in District 73,
known as Triangle of death (2002)
Exposure
Spatial distribution
of sites using GIS
Spatial distribution
of sites using GIS
n/a
Confounders
None
Health Outcames
Childhood morbidity
and mortality
Cancer mortality and
None
congenital
malformations
None
Cancer mortality
Reported Findings
-
Low birth weight
-
Fetal distress
-
Infantile cancers
-
All cancers SMR = 107.23 (M) – 111.08 (F)
-
Liver SMR = 181.13 (F)
-
Lung SMR = 121.85 (M) – 176.94 (F)
-
Larynx SMR = 211.85 (M)
-
Bladder SMR = 130.12 (M)
-
Stomach SMR = 56.1 (M)
-
All cancers SDR = 321.7 per 105 (M) vs. regional rate 301.8
-
Liver SDR = 35.9 per 105 (M) vs. regional rate 20.5
-
Larynx SDR = 12.8 per 105 (M) vs. regional rate 8.7
-
Bladder SDR = 29.3 per 105 (M) vs. regional rate 21.7
-
Colorectal SDR = 29 per 105 (M) vs. regional rate 26.4
-
Leukemia and lymphoma SDR = 28.2 per 105 vs. regional rate
17.9 (M); 18.7 per 105 vs. regional rate16.1 (F)
Comba et al.
(2006) [17]
About 4 million residents in
Geographical study
196 municipalities of Caserta and
Naples (1994–2001) a
Distance
of residence
None
-
All cancers SMR = 106.1(M) – 107.3 (F)
-
Liver SMR = 117.6(M) – 114.1 (F)
-
Lung SMR = 114.1 (M) – 126.5 (F)
Cancer mortality and
-
Larynx SMR = 111.8 (M)
congenital
-
Bladder SMR = 110.7 (M) – 117.5 (F)
malformation
-
Stomach SMR = 129.3 (M) – 118.2 (F)
-
NHL SMR = 109.1 (F)
-
Kidney SMR = 120.7 (F)
-
Malformations: total, cardiovascular and urogenital
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12
1227
Table 1. Cont.
Authors
Fazzo et al.
(2008) [19]
Study Design
Cluster analysis
Martuzzi et al.
Geographical study,
(2009) [24]
cluster analysis
Study Subjects
(Years of Observation)
Residents in 196 municipalities of
Caserta and Naples (1994–2001) a
About 4.9 million of residents in
196 municipalities of Caserta and
Naples (1994–2001)
a
Exposure
n/a
Waste index
category (WIC)
Confounders
Deprivation
index (DI)
DI,
Health Outcames
Cancer mortality and
congenital
malformation
Reported Findings
-
Liver (nr.4 cluster) RR = 2.04, p-value = 0.0003
-
Lung (nr. 3 cluster) RR = 1.30, p-value = 0.0003
-
Bladder(nr. 2 cluster) RR= 1.44, p-value = 0.004
-
Stomach (nr.1 cluster) RR = 1.31, p-value = 0.05 (M)
-
Kidney (nr.1 cluster) RR = 1.70, p-value = 0.01
-
Malformations: total, cardiovascular, urogenital and limb
-
All cancers ERR = 6.6% (F)
-
Liver ERR = 19.3% (M) – 29.1 (F)
Cancer mortality and
-
Lung ERR = 1.9% (M)
congenital
-
Stomach ERR = 5.2% (M)
malformation
-
NHL ERR = 5.7% (M)
-
Malformations, especially urogenital (ERR = 82.7%) and
nervous system (ERR = 83.5%)
Fazzo et al.
(2011) [27]
Pirastu et al.
(2011) [26]
Benedetti et al.
(2013) [32]
Cancer mortality and
About 5 million residents in
Cluster analysis
35 municipalities of
WIC
DI
Naples Province (1997–2005) b
Geographical study
congenital
malformation
Residents in 77 municipalities of
Distance of
Caserta and Naples (1994–2001) a
residence
DI
-
Liver RR = 1.64, p-value = 0.0003
-
Lung RR = 1.15, p-value = 0.08
-
Leukemia RR = 1.33, p-value = 0.05
-
Soft-tissue sarcoma RR = 2.02, p-value = 0.08
Cancer mortality and
-
All cancers SMR DI = 109 (M) – 105(F)
congenital
-
Liver SMR DI = 125 (M) – 126 (F)
malformation
-
Larynx SMR DI = 115 (M)
Soft tissue sarcomas
Gastrointestinal stromal tumors SIR = 2.04 (overall)
Resident in 35 municipalities of
Geographical study
Naples Province served by a Cancer
n/a
None
Registry (1997–2005) b
M = male; F = female; a studies that draw their data from the same database. b studies that draw their data from the same database.
–2.20 (M)
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12
1228
Table 2. Summary table of studies on human biomonitoring.
Authors
Donors
Samples
Biomarkers Studied
Naples area vs. 15 woman living in
a non-polluted area (Avellino,
(2011) [20]
De Felice et al.
(2012) [35]
59 healthy mothers (21 mothers
from Giugliano, 22 from Piacenza
Individual samples
and 16 from Milan)
50 woman living in north-east
Naples area vs. 50 controls from
urchin embryos DNA after the
anddifferent RAPD polymorphism were
n/a
Individual samples
none
sea urchin samples compared to non polluted
amniotic fluid
samples
PCDD-Fs and dl-PCBs in
breast milk
n/a
activity in mononuclear
n/a
blood cells
Diet, age, number of
deliveries and smoking
Rivezzi et al.
(2013) [34]
Caserta and Naples provinces at
Individual samples
least for previous 10 years
PCDD-Fs and dl-PCBs in
breast milk
(WIC), presence of
toxic waste or illegal
burning of waste near
(2014) [33]
Individual samples
least for previous 10 years
deliveries, weeks
associated with lower telomere length and
of pregnancy
telomerase activity
High values of dioxins were detected. Positive
Age, smoking, cheese
correlation was found with age and exposure to
consumptio, occupation
fires. Exposure to fires was more determinant
in low than in high risk area
PCDD-Fs and dl-PCBs in
waste or illegal
Age, smoking, cheese
Positive correlation was found with age, EDR
breast milk
burning of waste near
consumptio, occupation
(Environmental Risk of Dioxin)and fires
the residence
22 subjects had been living in “risk
Esposito et al.
area” of Naples for at least 1 year
(2014) [18]
vs. 33 control subjects from non
Biomarkers' concentrations were lower than
Individual samples
Serum PCDD-Fs and dl-PCBs
n/a
Age, body mass index
(2014) [37]
Case-control
values detected in studies on populations living
in exposed areas
polluted areas
De Felip et al.
those taken in Piacenza and Milan
WIC, presence of toxic
95 women had been living in
Caserta and Naples provinces at
samples collected in Giugliano were lower than
Residing in polluted areas is significant
the residence
Giovannini et al.
PCDD/F, PCB levels and WHO-TEQs in milk
Age, number of
Waste index category
95 women had been living in
observed for polluted amniotic liquid-treated
exposure to polluted/non polluted
Telomere length and telomerase
non-polluted areas
Reported Findings
Significant spermiotoxicity and embryotoxcity
assay and RADP profile of sea
Individual samples
Campania)
Ulaszewska et al.
Confunders
Embryotoxcity, spermiotoxicity
15 woman living in north-east
Guida et al. (2010) [36]
Exposure
For serum and blood samples:859
Pooled samples:
PCDD-Fs,-PCBs, As, Hg, Cd and
subjects living in Naples and
84 serum,
Pb in blood and serum;
Caserta; for milk samples:
84 blood and 6
PCDD-Fs, PCDEs-PCBs, As, Hg,
52 women from same areas
milk samples
Cd and Pb in breast milk
a
Biomarkers' concentrations were found to be
n/a
studies that draw their data from the same database.
Age range and gender
compatible with their current values in
European countries and in Italy
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12
1229
4. Discussion
One of the main problems in assessing the impact on health-related waste is the inadequacy of
information. In fact, our initial searches generated 100 hits. Most of them deal with waste
management, policy, economic evaluation, sociological features or environmental sentinels. The
Campania Region has been characterized by a waste crisis since the 80s, hence the presence of such a
large number of manuscripts is not surprising, but only 13 of them dealt with health effects and human
biomonitoring. Several reasons might account for this: first of all, the best studies to investigate a link
between exposure and health effects are descriptive, and use routine data (health statistics in this
particular case) from the population supposed to be at risk. Routine data are often available with delay
(death statistics 1994–2001 were used to the first time in 2006 [17]), which probably causes a delay in
publication of evidences and reduces the probability of finding manuscripts on this specific topic in the
literature. In order to define the population at risk, most studies have been focusing on identifying the
exact location of waste disposals, that in Campania are often illegal and difficult to find. In addition,
biomonitoring studies in human have been performed only recently probably because of difficulty in
recruiting donors. Only in 2004 the Civil Protection commissioned a research to a task composed by
experts from World Health Organization, from the Italian “Istituto Superiore di Sanità” and from
Campania Region to investigate the potential health effect related to waste mismanagement only
in 2004.
Although many reviews are available, the lack of data on exposure levels represents the major issue
in the evaluation of health effects arising from exposure to waste [9,10,16,38]. Furthermore, in
Campania the difficulty in exactly identifying waste arrangement and locating illegal waste dumping,
sinking and burning complicates the matter. The population at risk has been hard to identify, and this
could represent one of the main causes of delay in publication of evidences about potential health
effects related to waste exposure. Residential population have been exposed to a mixture of chemicals,
often toxic substances blended in with urban waste, since the 80s, and low exposures, even if extended
in time, are usually hard to identify. Exposure was estimated only in two studies through a synthetic
index based not only on distance from dumping sites, but also on intrinsic characterization of the waste
disposal (toxic and hazardous substances are often blend in with urban waste), on percentage of
resident population and on the characterization of neighboring areas by a geographic information
system (GIS) [24,27]. Furthermore, the application of this exposure index, performed by
Musmeci et al. [25], in the study of Fazzo et al. [19] finds some limits, as pointed out by the authors,
because of the modest consistency between the two correlation studies, that result in lower statistical
power. Another limit lies in the fact that the index does not take into account the burden of illegal
waste fires as suggested by the findings of Rivezzi et al. [34]. Indeed, exposure to fires resulted in
larger increases of dioxin concentrations in people living in low risk areas than those from high risk
areas [34]. In addition, low-dose exposures affect the relative risk in small increments that are difficult
to distinguish from those introduced by confounding factor [16]. No study reviewed or evaluated
confounding factors other than socioeconomic ones (education, unemployment, housing ownership,
surface of dwelling and family structure), so that any conclusion has to be viewed in the light of
variability and uncertainty in the results. Another constraint of the studies on residents in Campania
Region is that health data are far from being exhaustive. All the studies presented draw their data from
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12
1230
the Cancer Registry of Local Health Authority “Naples 4”, and from the National Hospital Discharge
Records database, the National Bureau of Statistics (ISTAT) that are compromised by problems related
to codification quality [39], delayed availability and lack of information.
Most of the studies taken into account show only small increases of health risk (RR between 1
and 2) for the residents in Campania. These results are hard to explain also because different effect
measures (SMR, RR, ERR, SIR, BIR, SDR) have been used in the studies, so that no direct
comparison can be done, even for the same measure (e.g. SMR), and a single result is impossible to
summarize. In addition, all the studies investigate multiple effects, which increases the chance of a
false positive result (error type 1). Despite these constraints, this review provides new relevant
information. Most studies analyzed in the review find a significant increase of total, liver and lung
cancer mortality in the Region; even if the study design, the heterogeneity of distribution, the lack of
information on confounders different from socioeconomic ones, which are important in such
multifactorial pathologies, can support only a possible role rather than a causal inference. All studies
on larynx show an excess of risk only in men, furthermore no study evaluated confounding factors
neither intensity of waste exposure. Some studies reveal an excess of risk for bladder and stomach
cancer only in men, additionally the excess of risk for bladder cancer disappears when considering
confounding factors, and no trend risk is revealed comparing areas of different waste-exposure
pressure. Similar results have been detected for kidney cancer in women. Even if some studies suggest
a higher risk of death for this cancer in Campania Region residents, this hypothesis has not been
confirmed by more recent studies that evaluated waste-exposure pressure and socioeconomic
confounders. Data reported for leukemia and lymphoma are discordant and non-comparable in both
sexes, thus suggesting more a role of other risk factors in the two genders rather than an association
with waste exposure. No risk has been detected for colorectal cancer and soft-tissue sarcoma. The link
between higher incidence of GIST and living in Campania needs to be clarified, since no given
etiological hypothesis still exists, and the mentioned environmental contamination by PCDD/F and
PCB has been recently debated [18]. Congenital malformation (particularly urogenital) outbreaks in
the Region linked to environmental pollution need further investigation, since the evidence up to date
only suggests a possible role of waste-related exposure.
Regarding the biomonitoring, despite several surveys detected bioaccumulation of different
pollutants in animals of Campania Region [40–44], evidence on humans are not conclusive. Studies on
biomarkers of early effect reveal a possible correlation between pollution levels in the “triangle of
death” and adverse effects to human health. The SEBIOREC study limits to dioxins and heavy metals
the possible overexposure due to waste mismanagement in the Region, and defines municipalities that
might deserve closer health surveillance [37]. Some data reported for dioxin in breast milk indicate
that the source of contamination could be the illegal waste burning, since no incinerator was operating
when the analysis was conducted [33]. Moreover, a long lasting human exposure could be
hypothesized because of correlation with age. By contrast, two more recent studies, even based on a
limited number of subjects, show values of serum/milk dioxin lower than other European countries and
Italy, thus suggesting that waste related pollution does not have an impact on health as significant as
supposed in the last years [18,20].
The findings presented so far suggest a possible role for environmental waste in the increasing
cancer rates detected in the Region, but evidence for a causal relationship is still weak, mainly due the
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12
1231
lack of exposure information and confounders control. Since possible health dangers attracted
considerable media attention and protest actions, at the beginning of 2014 Italian authorities issued
emergency measures to face growing pressure and guarantee the safety of Campania region.
Emergency measures included a dedicated decree (law n.6 6 February 2014), known as “Land of
Fires” Decree, that was shaped to tackle environmental and industrial emergencies and to support the
development of the most deprived areas. Main targets of the decree were mapping and remediation of
contaminated sites, health screening of resident population, territory control and economic recovery.
Nevertheless its constraints, the Land of Fires Decree was innovative and proved the real interest of
institutions towards citizens. First, the mapping of contaminated land represented not only a necessary
action of environmental restoration but also a needful answer to the agri-food industry, that
experienced hard times for the simultaneous existence of waste and economic crisis. In fact, media
scaremongering generated deep skepticism in both consumers and major brands concerning Campania
products, to the point that, to safeguard consumers’ concerns, suppliers begun to provide their raw
materials outside of the Region. The decree allowed to classify soils, depending on vulnerability, in
“food” and “no food”, pointing out definitively which lands were banned from food production.
However, the decree did not find unidirectional answers to Campania’s problems because of critical
issues imposed by the crisis itself. For example, the decree introduced the crime of burning waste
deposited in areas not intended for landfill, neglecting the issue of special and hazardous waste. The
legislature, in fact, would have to be more radical and hard about waste origin, in particular industrial,
and factors that cause illegal waste burying or burning as final destination. Finally, other critical issues
of particular importance concerned health safety. The decree appropriated 25 billion € of funds yearly
(for 2014 and 2015) for “health screening” of residents in Campania and Apulia region, that were
recognized by the WHO as high environmental risk areas since 1986 because of their metallurgic
industries. The decree hasn’t clarified the meaning of “health screening”. Currently, screenings that
have scientific evidence of effectiveness and efficiency are only three: mammography for breast
cancer, Pap tests for the cervical cancer and fecal occult blood test for colorectal cancer [45–47]. But
they may be hasty and inappropriate to be carried out for all Campania residents. We hypothesize that
the decree probably refers to biomonitoring activities, based on markers of susceptibility, exposure and
early effects, as a first approach to study citizens of affected areas. In fact, even if exposure data on
animals are available, biomonitoring studies on humans are only a few. Future studies are warranted to
better clarify total burden of exposure to low levels of pollutants in the long range, and to identify early
biological effect. Biomarkers are just one avenue to improve the measurement of exposure,
susceptibility and disease; the field of cancer epidemiology finds its new challenge in exposomes, that
promise to provide further insights in environmental health [48,49] and offer the opportunity to throw
light also on Campania region scenario. Further studies are needed to confirm the early effects
detected in response to the exposure to waste burning and dumping by De Felice et al. [35] and
Guida et al. [36]. Finally, the “Land of Fires” Decree, in order to deploy its full potential, should
represent only the beginning of multiple coordinated and targeted government actions to follow.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12
1232
5. Conclusions
Although many intrinsic limits affect contrasting studies and data [14,20], overall available findings
point out a possible long term role of waste, as suggested by positive correlation with outcomes as
liver and lung cancer mortality, in addition to a short term effect waste-related (less than 1 year),
confirmed by association with congenital malformation, which is compatible with the lack of
remediation of the polluted sites and persistence of waste mismanagement to date. Research on
exposure to pollutants confirms a possible exposure to illegal waste fires in the “triangle of death”,
nevertheless no risk excess for diseases has been recognized to be related to incineration (sarcomas,
non-Hodgkin lymphomas), and has been detected in resident population. Further studies are needed to
better define waste related-health effects, since updated data are still far from being conclusive. In spite
of methodological and sampling heterogeneity among studies, this review compiles the data in a
harmonized and effective way, so that the current status, knowledge gaps and research priorities can be
established. Thus, the present review wishes not only to provide a contribution to the scientific
community, but also to support recommendations for mitigating pollution sources and risks in the area
of concern. A similar process of analysis may be carried out for other areas and pressures in order to
facilitate policy making at regional, national as well as at European level.
Acknowledgments
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or
not-for-profit sectors.
Author Contributions
Maria Triassi conceptualized the study. Maddalena Illario, Antonio Nardone and Oreste Caporale
searched articles, collected data and draft the manuscript. Paolo Monutori and Rossella Alfano carried
out literature analysis, interpretation and discussion on statistical methods. All the authors significantly
contributed to the final version of the manuscript. Maddalena Illario additionally revised the
manuscript for English language.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
Senior, K.; Mazza, A. Italian “Triangle of death” linked to waste crisis. Lancet Oncol. 2004, 5,
525–527.
Legambiente. Rapporto Ecomafia; Legambiente: Roma, Italy, 2007.
Altavista, P.; Belli, S.; Bianchi, F.; Binazzi, A.; Comba, P.; del Giudice, R.; Fazzo, L.; Felli, A.;
Mastrantonio, M.; Menegozzo, M.; et al. Cause-specific mortality in an area of Campania with
numerous waste disposal sites. Epidemiol. Prev. 2004, 28, 311–321.
Legambiente. Rapporto Ecomafia; Legambiente: Roma, Italy, 2003.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
1233
Trinca, S.; Comba, P.; Felli, A.; Forte, T.; Musmeci, L.; Piccardi, A. Childhood mortality in an
area of southern Italy with numerous dumping grounds: Application of GIS and preliminary
findings. In Proceeding of the First European Conference “Geographic Information Sciences in
Public Health”, Sheffield, UK, 19–20 September 2001; p. 19.
Namen, A.A.; Brasil Fda, C.; Abrunhosa, J.J.; Abrunhosa, G.G.; Tarre, R.M.; Marques, F.J.
RFID technology for hazardous waste management and tracking. Waste Manag. Res. 2014, 32,
59–66.
Ferrara, L.; Iannace, M.; Patelli, A.M.; Arienzo, M. Geochemical survey of an illegal waste
disposal site under a waste emergency scenario (Northwest Naples, Italy). Environ. Monit. Assess.
2013, 185, 2671–2682.
Diletti, G.; Ceci, R.; Conte, A.; de Benedictis, A.; Migliorati, G.; Scortichini, G. Milk contamination
from dioxins in Italy: Source identification and intervention strategies. In the Fate of Persistent
Organic Pollution in the Environment; Mehmeti, E., Koumanova, B., Eds.; Springer: New York,
NY, USA, 2008; Volume 3; pp. 301–314.
Mattiello, A.; Chiodini, P.; Bianco, E.; Forgione, N.; Flammia, I.; Gallo, C.; Pizzuti, R.; Panico, S.
Health effects associated with the disposal of solid waste in landfills and incinerators in
populations living in surrounding areas: A systematic review. Int. J. Public Health 2013, 58,
725–735.
Porta, D.; Milani, S.; Lazzarino, A.I.; Perucci, C.A.; Forastiere, F. Systematic review of
epidemiological studies on health effects associated with management of solid waste.
Environ. Health. Glob. Access Sci. Source 2009, 8, doi:10.1186/1476-069X-8-60.
Ashworth, D.C.; Elliott, P.; Toledano, M.B. Waste incineration and adverse birth and neonatal
outcomes: A systematic review. Environ. Int. 2014, 69, 120–132.
Elliott, P.; Briggs, D.; Morris, S.; de Hoogh, C.; Hurt, C.; Jensen, T.K.; Maitland, I.; Richardson, S.;
Wakefield, J.; Jarup, L. Risk of adverse birth outcomes in populations living near landfill sites.
BMJ 2001, 323, 363–368.
Kah, M.; Levy, L.; Brown, C. Potential for effects of land contamination on human health.
2. The case of waste disposal sites. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health. Part. B Crit. Rev. 2012, 15,
441–467.
Carpenter, D.O.; Ma, J.; Lessner, L. Asthma and infectious respiratory disease in relation to
residence near hazardous waste sites. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2008, 1140, 201–208.
Minichilli, F.; Bartolacci, S.; Buiatti, E.; Pallante, V.; Scala, D.; Bianchi, F. A study on mortality
around six municipal solid waste landfills in Tuscany Region. Epidemiol. Prev. 2005, 29, 53–56.
Vrijheid, M. Health effects of residence near hazardous waste landfill sites: A review of epidemiologic
literature. Environ. Health Perspect. 2000, 108, 101–112.
Comba, P.; Bianchi, F.; Fazzo, L.; Martina, L.; Menegozzo, M.; Minichilli, F.; Mitis, F.; Musmeci, L.;
Pizzuti, R.; Santoro, M. Cancer mortality in an area of Campania (Italy) characterized by multiple
toxic dumping sites. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2006, 1076, 449–461.
Esposito, M.; Serpe, F.P.; Diletti, G.; Messina, G.; Scortichini, G.; la Rocca, C.; Baldi, L.;
Amorena, M.; Monda, M. Serum levels of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, polychlorinated
dibenzofurans and polychlorinated biphenyls in a population living in the Naples area, southern
Italy. Chemosphere 2014, 94, 62–69.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12
1234
19. Fazzo, L.; Belli, S.; Minichilli, F.; Mitis, F.; Santoro, M.; Martina, L.; Pizzuti, R.; Comba, P.;
Martuzzi, M.; Bianchi, F. Cluster analysis of mortality and malformations in the Provinces of
Naples and Caserta (Campania Region). Ann. Ist. Super. Sanita 2008, 44, 99–111.
20. Ulaszewska, M.M.; Zuccato, E.; Capri, E.; Iovine, R.; Colombo, A.; Rotella, G.; Generoso, C.;
Grassi, P.; Melis, M.; Fanelli, R. The effect of waste combustion on the occurrence of
polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in breast milk in Italy. Chemosphere 2011, 82, 1–8.
21. De Feo, G.; de Gisi, S. Public opinion and awareness towards MSW and separate collection
programmes: A sociological procedure for selecting areas and citizens with a low level of
knowledge. Waste Manag. 2010, 30, 958–976.
22. Pirastu, R.; Ancona, C.; Iavarone, I.; Mitis, F.; Zona, A.; Comba, P. SENTIERI Project.
Mortality study of residents in Italian polluted sites: Evaluation of the epidemiological evidence.
Epidemiol. Prev. 2010, 34, 1–2.
23. Barba, M.; Mazza, A.; Guerriero, C.; di Maio, M.; Romeo, F.; Maranta, P.; Marino, I.R.;
Paggi, M.G.; Giordano, A. Wasting lives: The effects of toxic waste exposure on health.
The case of Campania, Southern Italy. Cancer Biol. Ther. 2011, 12, 106–111.
24. Martuzzi, M.; Mitis, F.; Bianchi, F.; Minichilli, F.; Comba, P.; Fazzo, L. Cancer mortality and
congenital anomalies in a region of Italy with intense environmental pressure due to waste.
Occup. Environ. Med. 2009, 66, 725–732.
25. Musmeci, L.; Bellino, M.; Cicero, M.R.; Falleni, F.; Piccardi, A.; Trinca, S. The impact measure
of solid waste management on health: The hazard index. Ann. Ist. Super. Sanita 2010, 46,
293–298.
26. Pirastu, R.; Zona, A.; Ancona, C.; Bruno, C.; Fano, V.; Fazzo, L.; Iavarone, I.; Minichilli, F.; Mitis, F.;
Pasetto, R.; Comba, P. [Mortality results in SENTIERI Project]. Epidemiol. Prev. 2011, 35,
29–152.
27. Fazzo, L.; de Santis, M.; Mitis, F.; Benedetti, M.; Martuzzi, M.; Comba, P.; Fusco, M. Ecological
studies of cancer incidence in an area interested by dumping waste sites in Campania (Italy).
Ann. Ist. Super. Sanita 2011, 47, 181–191.
28. Franceschi, S.; Montella, M.; Polesel, J.; la Vecchia, C.; Crispo, A.; dal Maso, L.; Casarin, P.;
Izzo, F.; Tommasi, L.G.; Chemin, I.; et al. Hepatitis viruses, alcohol, and tobacco in the etiology
of hepatocellular carcinoma in Italy. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 2006, 15, 683–689.
29. Fusco, M.; Girardi, E.; Piselli, P.; Palombino, R.; Polesel, J.; Maione, C.; Scognamiglio, P.;
Pisanti, F.A.; Solmone, M.; di Cicco, P.; et al. Epidemiology of viral hepatitis infections in an
area of southern Italy with high incidence rates of liver cancer. Eur. J. Cancer 2008, 44, 847–853.
30. Gouveia, N.; Prado, R.R. Health risks in areas close to urban solid waste landfill sites.
Rev. Saude. Publica 2010, 44, 859–866.
31. Boberg, E.; Lessner, L.; Carpenter, D.O. The role of residence near hazardous waste sites
containing benzene in the development of hematologic cancers in upstate New York.
Int. J. Occup. Med. Environ. Health 2011, 24, 327–338.
32. Benedetti, M.; Fazzo, L.; Buzzoni, C.; Comba, P.; Magnani, C.; Fusco, M. Incidence of soft tissue
sarcomas in an Italian area affected by illegal waste dumping sites. Arch. Environ.
Occup. Health 2013, 11, doi:10.1080/19338244.2013.845135.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12
1235
33. Giovannini, A.; Rivezzi, G.; Carideo, P.; Ceci, R.; Diletti, G.; Ippoliti, C.; Migliorati, G.; Piscitelli, P.;
Ripani, A.; Salini, R. Dioxins levels in breast milk of women living in Caserta and Naples:
Assessment of environmental risk factors. Chemosphere 2014, 94, 76–84.
34. Rivezzi, G.; Piscitelli, P.; Scortichini, G.; Giovannini, A.; Diletti, G.; Migliorati, G.; Ceci, R.;
Rivezzi, G.; Cirasino, L.; Carideo, P. A general model of dioxin contamination in breast milk:
Results from a study on 94 women from the Caserta and Naples areas in Italy. Int. J. Environ. Res.
Public Health 2013, 10, 5953–5970.
35. De Felice, B.; Nappi, C.; Zizolfi, B.; Guida, M.; di Spiezio Sardo, A.; Bifulco, G.; Guida, M.
Telomere shortening in women resident close to waste landfill sites. Gene 2012, 500, 101–106.
36. Guida, M.; Guida, M.; de Felice, B.; Santafede, D.; D’Alessandro, R.; di Spiezio Sardo, A.;
Scognamiglio, M.; Ferrara, C.; Bifulco, G.; Nappi, C. Assessment of DNA damage by RAPD in
Paracentrotus lividus embryos exposed to amniotic fluid from residents living close to waste
landfill sites. J. Biomed. Biotechnol. 2010, 7, doi:10.1155/2010/251767.
37. De Felip, E.; Bianchi, F.; Bove, C.; Cori, L.; D’Argenzio, A.; D’Orsi, G.; Fusco, M.; Miniero, R.;
Ortolani, R.; Palombino, R. Priority persistent contaminants in people dwelling in critical areas of
Campania Region, Italy (SEBIOREC biomonitoring study). Sci. Total Environ. 2014, 487, 420–435.
38. Giusti, L. A review of waste management practices and their impact on human health.
Waste Manag. 2009, 29, 2227–2239.
39. Rosati, E.; Agabiti, N.; Limongelli, P.; Materia, E.; Guasticchi, G. A retrospective study to
evaluate the quality of medical charts and discharge abstracts in several Rome hospitals.
Ig. Sanita Pubblica 2004, 60, 243–257.
40. Basile, A.; Sorbo, S.; Aprile, G.; Conte, B.; Cobianchi, R.C.; Pisani, T.; Loppi, S. Heavy metal
deposition in the Italian “triangle of death” determined with the moss Scorpiurum circinatum.
Environ. Pollut. 2009, 157, 2255–2260.
41. Esposito, M.; Cavallo, S.; Serpe, F.P.; D’Ambrosio, R.; Gallo, P.; Colarusso, G.; Pellicano, R.;
Baldi, L.; Guarino, A.; Serpe, L. Levels and congener profiles of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins,
polychlorinated dibenzofurans and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls in cow’s milk collected
in Campania, Italy. Chemosphere 2009, 77, 1212–1216.
42. Esposito, M.; Serpe, F.P.; Neugebauer, F.; Cavallo, S.; Gallo, P.; Colarusso, G.; Baldi, L.; Iovane, G.;
Serpe, L. Contamination levels and congener distribution of PCDDs, PCDFs and dioxin-like
PCBs in buffalo’s milk from Caserta province (Italy). Chemosphere 2010, 79, 341–348.
43. Maselli, V.; Polese, G.; Rippa, D.; Ligrone, R.; Kumar Rastogi, R.; Fulgione, D. Frogs, sentinels
of DNA damage induced by pollution in Naples and the neighbouring Provinces.
Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2010, 73, 1525–1529.
44. Zaccaroni, A.; Corteggio, A.; Altamura, G.; Silvi, M.; di Vaia, R.; Formigaro, C.; Borzacchiello, G.
Elements levels in dogs from “triangle of death” and different areas of Campania region (Italy).
Chemosphere 2014, 108, 62–69.
45. Gotzsche, P.C.; Jorgensen, K.J. Screening for breast cancer with mammography.
Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2013, 6, doi:10.1002/14651858.
46. Hewitson, P.; Glasziou, P.; Irwig, L.; Towler, B.; Watson, E. Screening for colorectal cancer
using the faecal occult blood test, Hemoccult. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2007, 1,
doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001216.pub2.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12
1236
47. Ronco, G.; Dillner, J.; Elfstrom, K.M.; Tunesi, S.; Snijders, P.J.; Arbyn, M.; Kitchener, H.;
Segnan, N.; Gilham, C.; Giorgi-Rossi, P.; et al. Efficacy of HPV-based screening for prevention
of invasive cervical cancer: Follow-up of four European randomised controlled trials. Lancet
2014, 383, 524–532.
48. Ra ppaport, S.M.; Barupal, D.K.; Wishart, D.; Vineis, P.; Scalbert, A. The blood exposome and its
role in discovering causes of disease. Environ. Health Perspect. 2014, 122, 769–774.
49. Wild, C.P.; Scalbert, A.; Herceg, Z. Measuring the exposome: A powerful basis for evaluating
environmental exposures and cancer risk. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 2013, 54, 480–499.
© 2015 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Download Report