ii
I
N G HT S ?
HO I ^UNI
J V E RS AALRET HT HUMARI
b y J o h a n G a lt u n g
B e rg h o f S t i f t u n g
1 ^ lin k le rS t ra B e 4 a
10 0 0 B e rl i n 3 3
Ma y 19 8 4
-l
In tr r :d uction
Th e purpose of this paper is t o c o n t rib u t e t . o a n o n g o in g d e b at e
o n hu n a n r ights,
and more partic u la r' ly o n t h e t win p ro b ie n t so f t o wh a t
e x t e n i t h ey a re l ^ i e ste rna n d to what extenXt.heyar e univer sal. T h e s e a re
p r e ci se l y tvii n probl ems becatrser^ rh a t e v e ir s lrre s t e rn , f ro m c h ri s t i a n i t y
via the m ajor colonial 'languar; e st o d e v e -io p me nntro d esl a n d : . ' . it : , c , .
nci
AS a nreaSUreOfly'estern
tech n o lo g y,tend: to be conce'ive do f a s u n iv e rs a l ,
r.{estern
= uni.zersal
' is f o u n d n o t o n l y a n ro n gwe s t e rn e rs the iclea
'in othe r l v ords, i t i s accepted by ma n yo t h e rs . Ho v le v e r,t o p re t e n d t h a t
so m e thin g is universal does not n e c e s s a rily me a nt h a t it ' is
power-
u n ' iv e rs a l
in an y o p eratjonal or mean'ingfu ls e n s e ,iik r: a n y b o d yt ry in g t o s e 1 1 s h o e s
o f si ze zl-A torcars madefon right -h a n d d riv in g rv ri' ll s o o n e x p e rie n c e .
Be fore entering into the k e y d ' in re n s io n sf o r d is c u s s in g t h is p ro b le m, ! 1 r n e a n d
!p e - e , t'"henand*h.* dict tlrer;onc e p to rig irlc lt g , lro wa n d wh y a n d lv h a t k ' in d
o f cu ltur a l 'irnprint does it. carr y , s o me c o n c e p t rra l' iz a t io no f h u ma nrig h t s
is n e ce ssary, I shal I conceive o f a h u ma t rig
i h t a s a n 0 rm, c o n c e t " n in g
the r o ck bottorn of humanexisten c e rp o t e n t ia lly f o r h u ma nb e in g s e v e ry w he 'e . L ike for any normsi;ner:m re n o rm-s e n d e rs (S )v rh os a y t h a t t h is
a n d tha t s hould be/should not be d o n e ; t h e re a re n o rn t -re c e ' iv e rs(R) r h s c e
th e ta sk j t is to see to jt that t h js a n d t h a t will b e / w' ill n o t b e d o n e ;
a n d th e r e are t.he norm objects (O ) wt ro in p rin c ip ] e a re t h e c e n t e r
j
pi
11[olg ,constructi on, f o r wh o mt h e h u ma nri g h t s e x i, t $ / , n d "-i
' e ce o f the e\€]1\A'7hel:e
-
vi dual humanbe'inr.lsn
, and t_lg_ryIt*
o r o rg anjzar \Lo,l.?!ftu!.t, toda,vgener aiiy
s e n d e r - i s tl i e co mmu n i ty
Obviously,however ,
i n t e r p r e t ed a s b e i n g th e U n i te d Nat' ions/Assem bly.
t h e n o r n o b j e cts ma ya Jso se n d these nor nr sto the state as a r eceiver ,
ttTh o r ;:,t.i '-:,1i
not inrprison me w'itho u t d L rep ro c e s s ri' la r, " rrrf rfT h o u s i' ra : t n :- r - ; v i 1 1 e :
t yi o f s t a t e s
m e w i th g ai nf ul enrp'loyment,"
and s o o n . B ut i t i s t h e c o mmu n
t.h a t for m ulate the norms, put th e rn in t o t h e s h a p e o f n o t . o n ly n e g o t ia b ie
b u t :::i ;i:iiabl6nstrutnents, sttc h a s t h e t h re e ' in s t ru n e n t s c o lle c t e d
in w ha t js often called the lntern a t io n a l B jlI o f Hu ma nRig t h t s (t f re
R ig h t s ; t h e l n t . e rn a t io n a l f la l* . ; € . n e n { ,
U nive r sa l Declarat'ion of l-luman
o n Eco n o m'ic,S oc'ial and Cu'ltura l Rig h t s a n d t h e I n t e rn a t io n a l Co v e n a n t
o n C'ivil and P ol'it'ical Rights). B a s . ic a 1 1 y ,t h is is t h e ma t e ria l t o
b e d i scu ssed.
a
2. llglt-an
rglft'-gj
t@g-
Th u s conceived of humanri g h t s h a v e a s t h e ' ir c o n d " it ' io nf o r e x is t e n c e
a co n text with three clear cons t ru c t s : in d iv id u a ls ,
o r e ve n organ'izations of states . P u t d if f e p . n 1 1 r,
s t a t e s a n d c o mmu n jt ie s
t h e re is t h e a s s u mp t io n
of a thr e e tier world, a particula r s o c ia l c o n s t ru c t io n t h a t c a mes 1 o w1 y
i nto b e in g after the decl'ine of t . h e Mid d le A g e s . Ru t t h e b a c k q o u n d rs l: r:: o a d e r .
(o b l ig a t io n s ) rn u s t b e
.fgcgn;og{- _sg;leys o{ right g a n d d u t ie s
a s o ld a s humanbeings themselve s ; t h e in t e re s t ' in g q u e s t io n js h o w
th e y ar e r 1.r!-r.:;t
r.rut%frb coLrld im a g in e s e v e ra l jd e a l t y p e s . 0 n t h e o n e
h a n d th e r e would be the 'idea of a n e g a l it a ria n ,
p o s s ib l. v 'n o n ra d icc o mmu n ity
w i th pe o p le woven together in ne t s o f riq h t s a n d d irt ir: s , t h e n e t b e in g
n tad e'in such 0 wc1!that evervbo d yc o me so u t o f t h e . in t e ra c t i o n p a t t e rn s
r ela t'i ve1 y well pr^ otectedand re la t ' iv e 1 y e v e n ly . Hu ma nb e in g s a re o f
co u r se r ecognizable phys'ically/b io lo g ic a i l, v ' in t h is n e t wo rk b u t t h e mo re
o r rn e a n in g le s sw' ill it b e
d e n se ly the net is spun, the rrrc red if f jc u lt
i: . - -ir ' , h e ne t ,
to d e tach the jndivjdual from th e n e t wo rk . ' llh e in d rv jilu a . l
r i: r . ,
only
in
th e
k n o o r,
' ' -c ti r ;e
i l l l {a:
r' t:t
' l i r:-' i l ol ,Ogi cal
i i .,i j ;hul :,. r ', \ , - .
?h i:nthere 'is another conc e p t io n : t f ie re is a c h " ie f , a p rin c e , a
kin g w i th layers inbetweendown t o t h e n ro s t h u mb le , h ig h ly v e rt ic a l,
b u t still
collecLivist.
There are rjg h t s a n d d u t ie s wit h in a n d b e t we e n
the l aye r s, at the top not only rig h t s a n d a t t h e b o t t o m n o t o n ly d u t ie s .
Fe u d a lism is often described as s y s t e rrg o f t h is k in d , a n d a lt h o u g h t h e re
we r e I j m i tat'iors put on the princ e it wa s a ls o q u it e c le a r t h a t t h o s e
I ow d o yr ni n the p.yrami
ds were to s o mee x t e nI t re at e d I i k e p ro p e rt y
with wh o mthe prince could do as h e p le a s e s " He mjg h t n o t e ill' ; a iy ' sb e p le as e c
wjlh eve r ythinq he did, however, f o r t h e re we re a ls o limit a t io n s o n
not
h is exe r cise of power. ?ii,:se ; E i, t h e n c t t o n \ " . ie r: ed e f in rt e lrv
e i l \ , ; . , r , r;' .si : c s t 1
Ho wever,in the 16th centu rv E u ro p e t h e t h re e c o n s t it u t iv e c o mp o n e nt s
to o k sh a p e. P owerwas concentra t e d u p wa rd s in t h e p y ra mid a l c o n s t ru c t io n
a n d vested with the kings and emp e ro rs (b y t h e s ra c e o f G o d ); a n o rg a n izatj on ultimately equippedwith min is t rie s a n d a c a b in e t , a b u re a u c ra c y
: lo und
em e r g e d f
the prince, ultinra t e ly t o b e k n o wna s t h e s t a t e . S t a t e s
(I) R3i1ry1fl6 Pan'i kj'ar,
'f,a not-i-on des droits
dental
?f Drlegene_, ll" -'t20 , 7982.
de I'h.orlrne est-el-le
un concent
occi-
- 3-
r e.l ated with each other econom ic a ' 1 1 yp, o l' it ic a 1 1 y a n d n rjlit a rily in t h e
em e r g in g state system crystallized ' in t h e P e a c eo f + : s t , f , a l, { 4 " 6 4 8 ). A n d
';
th r o u g h m eansof production les s t ie d t o la n d a n d a q ric u lt u re a n d t h e
cycl es of naturerand more to ra w ma t e ria ls a n d in d u s t ry a n d t h e p ro c e s s e s
o f com m ercialization, geographic a l a n d s o c ia l mo b ilit y b e c a mern u c hmo re
pr o n o u n cedand the ildividual
e me rg e da s s o me b o d yc a o a b le o f re la t in g
d i r ectl y to God (through protest a rlt is n r), t o . t h e K ' in q (a s s _ u b je c t . a) n d
.' anrr t-o €a.nith_l (as ,.torke"r,'errrlo-iee)
ult'i r ,'r a telyto the S tate (as citiz e n )n O f c o u rs e . t h e in t e rme d ia rie s
w er e still
there but a new cons t ru c t jo n h a d e me rg e d .T h e K in g d e riv e c l
hi s po ive r f rom God; ul t'inrately t h e s t a t e b u i I t a ro u n d t h e K in g o v e rd h
le q jt in ra t ' io n f r o n rG o drrra n e wit
_t h e
G od him self . The S tate neededf n e w s o u rc e o f le g it jrrra t io n wit h t h e
sove r e ig n ty "corrti
ng f rom" the p e o p le (a n d v e ry ra re ly g e t t i n q b a c k
",'ei
ag a ir -):. vox i.;olul i, vox
L , e c a n e -: it e t -T : ' . y ' , rs iL rc nit r: lu 1 i.
sha d o we dthe K 'inq hirlself and
About this process nuch ca n b e s a id , b u t f o r t h e p re s e n t p u rp o s e
n o t so nr uchis needed. The relat ic ln s L re t r, ie ein
n d iv ' id u a ls w' it h ' in a s t a t e
we r e r e g u lated by national (or " mu n ic ip a l" ) la v rs ; t h e re la t io n s n , i; r
b e tw ee nstates jncreasingly t.hr o u g h" in t e rn a t io n a l la w - r, r€ re
taA.,, ',roce ss,
n in
It ' is in this context the h u ma nriq h t s s h o u ld b e s e e n : a s a
com p le x construct combining elen e n t s o f n a t . io n a l a n d in t e rn a t io n a l
to
la w, ba se d on both of them and c o n t rib u t " in g n
thr e e t:ei
b o t h o f t h e n r. I n t h e
systernind'icated we q e t . s o me t h in q ' l ik e F jg u re 1
Fisure t. I!.
,gfggt'ive stj'[ctuti_of
_l1qiql_11gllq
sleJs-rv$er
( sender)
I
I
II Nor m
\y
( re ce' ive
r)
State
t_
j)o n n s s ' io n (n e g . rig h t s )
nu I rur\
j s s i o n (p o s. ri g h t s )
-] * > c o rn m
I
Aarfrlit/1
,t
ind'iv id u a l s
(obje c t s )
- 4-
I t ma yce rta i n 'l y b e d i scussedto what extent the state system
r e a l l y r / asa n o rm se n d e r ro ror eile%er genceof r elat' ively well or g.r n i z e C s y s te msi n th e fo rm o f the l- eagueof flatr onsand the United Nations,
a f t e r t h e F j rst a n d S e co n di Jo r ld W ar sr espective' ly.But the jdea that
t h e h u m anri g h ts so me h oco
w mefr om the outsjCe js pr obablyver y o1d,
a t t h e s a meti me a s th e re h a s beena secular izat.ionpr ocessnot only
f o r G o d ,b u t a l so fo r th e K i n q . 1,.nciw cu- r ,sr i:: i:lcnle:: ' v' r r sneecled,
T h e h u ma nri q h ts i n F 'i g ur e1 appearas conl^ete actions engaged
i n b y t h e sta te . T h e ya re o f two kjnds, the negativehuntan
r ights
f o c u s s ' i n go n w h a t th e sta te sh ould not do, on dom est' icatinq
the state,
I j l r : i ;.n6 the state, ntaki ng i t o b e y
d u e p ro c e s : o f la w. A n d t h e n
l he r e i s the second kind, t.he ac t s o f c o mmis s io n ,t h e p o s it iv e h u ma n
r i gh ts d e fjning the state as a p f o v id e r' , wjt h t h e in d iv id u a ls h a v in g
cla 'ir n so n the state, [ot.on'ly ag a in s t t h e s t a t e a s f o r t h e n e g a t iv e
irItO
r i gh ts. The civil I politjcal rig h t s a re o f t e n s e e n a s b e in q n rr, e o f t h e
f j r st kin d, anC the: economic, so c ia l a n d c rrlt u ra I riq h t s rt re o f t h e s e c on d
the o r ig ir :a1 Fter,ch Declaration d u d ro it d e -, -n , t 1 )r' 1 , -t
i, tj . it u c iir-. \ , e n
( 17 8 9 ) and the Un'iversal Decla ra t jo n o f Hu ma nRjq h t s (1 9 4 8 ) c a n
tb €
p r o b "b ly\seen as combinjnq the two e le me n t s .
l1 o wever,this dist.'inctjon is le s s imp o rt a n t a n d a ls o n ra in ly
sem a n ti c, 'ljke the dist'inctio/ b e t we e nt rl' r' e e d o ls -f ' t ' ' i: ' rila n d I t il-€ e d o n ' t , o r l
m u ch cl ep encf
ing on what i<inJ\oriorcalsre u s e d a n d wh e t h e r n e g a t iv e p a rt ic le s
a r e m ad euse of or not. P rci'e intp o rt a n t wo u ld b e s o n rek in d o f ima q e o f
th e sccj al st.ructure of a humanrig h t ,
a n d a n e f f o rt
t o d e v e lo p a n ima g e
t's gi ven i n F'igure 2.
Fi gu r e 2 . The social
:t!-9!r9_, l_[unrgr_1glll
sta te system
1e g iti ma cy /\
accountability
(l
\/
a\
^ +-+^
J L OL g
ri g h ts
\tnoi uio u a r /
duties
-6 -
n o r r xob je ct 'is an 'individual . Lo c a t e d ' in t h e ' in t e rf a c e b e t we e nin re rna t'i on a l and national 1aw, in a s e n s e a s c u s t o ma ry p a rL s o f b c ' t h o f
th e n t, the hrrmanrights se:-vean imp o rt a n t . in t e g rit y f u n c t io n ' in t h e
t o rie t h cl ,
to la l wo r ld normat'ivesystemr a.s : : n e t t . y in 5 -' t h e t l' : r-e e t re rs
( a s j nd i cated j n piour:e 2) .
I do not think one can go f u rt h e r in t h e e x p lo ra t io n o f t h rs
ph e n o m e non
withoutlooking 'into t h e d u t je s . B e t we e nt h e e me rg in g s t a t e
an d th e e mergin-iindjviduals a ne w c o n t ra t s o c ' ia l t o o k s h a p e . i d o n o t
th in k by any meansthat we have s e e n t h e e n d o f t h is p ro c e s s y e t ,
b u t on e key to the phenomenon
is p ro b a b ly f o u n d p re c is e ly in t h e t it le
o f th e o r iginal
French document ,re f e rrin g n o t o n iy t o t h e rig h t s o f
"m a n ", bu t also to the rjghts of " c it iz e n " .
A p e rs o n ma y b e a rn a n / wo me n
i n a m o r e absolute, perhaps even u n jv e rs a l s e n s e * wh a t e v e r t h a t n rig h t
m ea n- b u t js a cjtizen only relat iv e t o t h e s t a t e ra n d n io re p a rt jc u ' la r1 1 '
to th e state of which he/she 'is a c it jz e n . T h e c lu t ie s t h a t ' in rrire d ia t e ly
co m e to one's lnind vrould be the d u t y (p a rt . ic u l a rly o f n re n )t o p ro d u c e
a n cl ( pa r ti c ularly of rvomen)to re p ro d u c e ; in o t h e r wo rd s t o rn a k et h e
state r i ch in terms oi ncn-hum a na n d h u ma nc a p it a l.
eco n o m icduty to pay taxes and t h e p o lit ic a i
a t l ea st irot to work against the p o lit ic a l
T h e n ;t h e re is t h e
d u t y t o p a rt ic ip a t e o r
rn a c h jn e ry . A n d f in a ' lly t h e re
i s the r n ilitary duty (partjcularl. v f o r me n ) t o s a c rjf ic e o n e ' s l' if e
fo r i he cause defined by the sta t e in t h e ' in t e r-s t a t e s y s t e n .
l de a vydui.ies, the latter eve n e x t re n t e . T t i s imp o rt a n t t o s e e
the r ise of obligatory war serv' ic e , , e v e n t u a 1 1fyo r t h e wh o ' lep o p u la t io n
in i ncr e a singlytoLalizing
wa1p "f ro
, m p e rt a in in g t o a c a s t e o f wa rrjo rs
on ly to a ll able-bodied men and v ro me n , a nudlt ima t e ly t o e v e ry b o d ya s
n o n - p r o testing v jct'ims in the l ig h t o f in c re a s ' in g s c o p e f o r h u ma n
rights.
ig.Lgl__tjglts woulC entitle the state to demandtpl_al__-du!cs;
the total rrrovider is entitled t o t o t a l c O n rmit rn e nal.s j. s p ro d u c e r. ] . 1 . es t a t e oA\re,
the state took, the nameof the s t a t e b e p ra ' is e d . T h e F i. . 3 t e rr; iiv e s rr e ii i r : n
c t < , ; , s rn il j-t a _ r1 , .s e r. / i CO , t i i. :.:ofor:
i./onen.
-and
In this process the stat.e h a s a v e ry ra t io n a l a rg u me n t : " if
the state is to provide for a'll
to hau'0en tbe
t h a t is l' is t e d in t h e in t e r-
s imp ly h a v e t o h a v e mo re f f ro lt € ] . f r
citiz e n s ' 1 ; , . 1 , p 1 -1 1 r. , * riih : ; : : d , t ro d u c in g
a
na ti on a l c hecking l ist of ri ghts , t h e c l
i l cr : i hr s
i,
surplus,
directly
r,vhat not
only
woul d have
which
to
d.utv
can
rnake use
of
to
able
extricate
to
This
is
at
with
the
f
of
beinq
hicrhlv
abilitv
to
thinkinc'
tiqhts)
in
connection.
their:
citizens,
less
to
attention
of
unemnloyrnent
of
political-
well
in
lorrr level
to
also,unable
missionarlz
throucrh
a contractual
lation
human ricrhts
Hcuierrer: that
with
nnv be,
is
can be no doubt
of havincr a r:owerful
shoul-d be. The hurnan ::icrhts
ar:e bal.anced vlith
But as t]le
thei::
duties
and with
they
- siroJv
in one's
but
are there
also
to
obedient
can becole
citj-zens
cn:ite
forrnidable
one dav,
r
'I
duties,
realizinc{
'.
total
freedorqs,
state
becor,e neanincrless.
sor,"e kind
llke
that
The
of la-tter-darz
the welfa::e
crrnnlscl-ence and orrn'ri-
and r.rositive
their
- the
riohts
kinds
nentioned.
harre to be tak-en
but
consecfuenees.
also
exercisincr
Til-l- rve rvake up
,,
as ric'hts,
hb.rre nrade us totallrz
unfree,
as
I
\firere
conserrza-tiv,es/fascists
: a stron<l
do not extend
riohts,
o]: even take
Ttre net
result
narr be disapg>intinqly
rnav bur-y us in riohts.
Illrerals/srrcialists
lar
that
vrith
concerned
rnanv of Lhe rLohts
and onrnirotence
in theili
Dopu-
to a str:oncr and central-
see to lt
!l
less
of the nndern
@vqlen!,
clainino
the
as an institution
rnidst,
of the necratire
benerzolence,
human ricrhts
the
hurnan r:ishts
otherrvise
ha.s erre::gled, orrnlscience
constmction
jn the barogin,
prowider
and omtrlrrctent,
God, not onlv_onrriscient
rrotence
costlv
of
dancre-
conservative:,.
ther/ are l-inked
di-srx>sal,
less
the
nhase in the errclution
firnds at its
be
fo:r: mobilizino
that
sources
and vislons
mav also
-
l-evef
relative-l-rz
othe::
and beliefs
patriotism
more
hioh
slzstem with
have
those
l-evel
consecuentlrz
and
vrith
tlav
hicrh
rnuch is
thev
Conseouentl-v,
i-nvoke
there
unless
norm.ative-bas-i-s
of uihichr c<ruld be cmite
that
; and- in
ricrht
with
citizens
miser:y
of
rnvths
contr:acts
vrorld
of
-economic
sociaf
on
in
the
t\/pe
(hi-c'h on
(resultino
But ,such states
.-r.*lthemsel-ves.
hlstorical
considerahl-e
i:n:lenentation
state
oopul-ation
in the T^rest. Itbre partieuJ-arlv,
svstem,
idea
tohers,
to a particul-ar
ane linked
state
to
to
anv kinC
svstem,
that
rnake the
e\zen of
relioious
duties.
have
(hicrh
in
institutionalized.
wi.ll
riqhts
hurnan ricrhts
Stat-e
vrorked, out
a.b1e to
r:iqhts.
whlz there
for
United
Union
both
the
be
not
j-nter-state
the
the
over-claim,
He should
citizens
the
of
to
of
states
for
not
ful-fillment
in
have
also,
ill-ustr:ate
na--\zbe other
r:a,ther: than
vtas/is
to
citj-zen
surpl us with
claimins
because
and
v/ars,
not
by
Union)
a-s intact
ricThts
state.
Soviet
their
rnobil-ize
have
hunan
the
the
Soviet
States,
nrovision
of
f o drarnlnnrln - such
rousi
in
There
for.
Thev
United
the
frorn
both
the
neol-ected.
the
but
ze the
a lar:cre extent
r:epr:ession
rrrovided
a verv
to
clain'
aqc.ressirze
mobil'i
and of
to
hi<vh in
beincr
for
r:rovj-de
And even,
al so serves
it
to
the
cj-tizen.
duties
f rom the
riohts)
state
dutv
to
be used
svster'1 delnand.s. The
riohts,
calls
civiL/r>o].itical
both
the
and her
am actualllz
this
for
betvreen
leve1
dcTcrls5slon.
the
because
same tj-r'e
a hioh
for
hirnsel-f
no contr:adiction
and
nroduee
the
irnnor:tant
is
sta-te
his
lecrj-tj.mizincT
can
the
r;rovj-de
therebv
that
but
citizens
state
the
dutv
the
the
indirectly,
and
state
d,enrandint total
corr-tnitn'ent - in the nuclear
aoe.
thenr awavi
sirrri--
-8 -
3 . H u m a rni g h _ tsj a cl y!_ rza ti o nat_ler specl_r yS.
Th e approach taken in th'is s e c t io n v rill b e le s s h is t o ric a l a n d
less oriented tor^rards tire, Tnre tcl.'ards sDa,ce.
\to
n tor e ti ed \a view of western civiliz a t io n .
T h e c u e s t io n t o b e a n s we re d
is sjm p ly th'is: to what extent, a n d p re c is e iy h o wrc a nt h e h u ma nrig h t s
a s w e kn o w them in their totality b e s e e n a s a n e x p re s s io n o f we s t e rn
cjvi'l jza ti 0n, with a relatively c le a r a n d c o n s is t e n t we s t e rn b ia s ?
Th e q u e stion to be asked i not wh e t h e r t h is is g o o d o r b a d , o n ly wh e t h e r
c )7 : t : s L , ' ' t e r,
it i s the case or not. livaluatrcn
Fo r the exploration of th' is n ro b le n ra v ' is jo n o f we s t e rn c jv iliz a t io n
i s n e e d e doand the one that rvill b e u s e d h e re is b a s e d o n s o -c a lle d
cosm o lo g yanalyrlt)Civil.izations
a re t h e n a . n . o . ly s e e 'i.; . . -: t , t igs ix e l. ' in e r, .s , i c n s ,
th e pa r ti cular stand taken by we s t e rn c iv iliz a t jo n
a lo n g t h e s e s ix Cin e n s i o n s
a n d wh a t t h e n f o llo ws wo u ld b e
de:c::ibed t
i en tati-rel-y
a n exp liir at.ion of to what extent h u ma nrig h t s c a n b e s e e n a s a n e x e mp liis
fica t'i on of this part-icular civ' iliz a t io n a l
p o s it io n . L e t u s lo o k a t
th e m q u ickly so as to get an ove r-v je w.
( 1 ) : SPACI.The !{est.ernassuntp t io n is t h e t t h e wo rld c a n b e d iv jd e d in 1 6 two parts, a centet" whic h js ' in t h e l. le s La' n d a p e rip h e ry wa it in g
to r eceive what comesfrotn t h e We s t . T h e re n t a ya ls o b e a rr o u t e r
pe r ip hery, refusing to be i n c o rp o ra t e d a s s e c o n d c la s s i. le s t rf o r
w hich harsher treatment tha n t h e p ro p a g a t io n o f id e a s , g o o d s a n d
ser vices rn'ight hreneeded. In t h is ima g e o f t h e s p a t , ia l a rra n g e me n t
o f the world there are actu a l' ly t wo id e a s : o n e is u n iv e ry a ljs ! ,
tha t what is western is relu g jt
f o r t h e wh o le wo rld l a n d t h e
othe r one is S g_trLl1911L,
tha t \ We s t is t h e c e n t e r f ro m wh ic h mo s t r o r
alm o st al I, valuable things o rig in a t e .
I do not think
t'a d jtion
it
u n f a jr t o s a y t h a t t h e h u ma nrig h t s
is
can be seen jn t.h is 1 ig h t . I t e me rg e dh is t o ric a lly
in
th e l { esb and has breenpropag a t e df ro m t h e t { e s t . T h e u n iv e rs a l
de cla ratjon of humanrights f ^ / a sa c c e p t e d b y a p re d o min a n t ly we s t e rn
tg-+3
-.Ln
U n i t e d N a t'i o
n \a n 'dn i g h t h ave had consider ablymor edifficulties
t o d a y. In th e fi rst ye a rs ' it was djseminatedand pr opaaatedr and
(2) Galtuno.
\r ./
He-iesfarl-
Prrdeno.
The Nevr Carnbridoe lt'ldern
"cln the
Fristonz
l-asf 25o0 rrear:s in vrestern histonz"
, .L-tllrnanr()nvolure,
Ch 12, Carnbnclce 1978lhj'li
-
|
-)i
':il i
-9 -
sti I I is, from the l,Jesttow a rd s t h e re s t o f t h e wo rld . I n t h e Co ld
War '^ dnLqhwe
have had almost d u rin c , t h e e n t ire p e rio d s ' in c e t h e
un iversal declaratjonrthe h u ma nrig h t s o n wh ic h t h e We s t s e e s it s e lf
as b eing particuarly st.ron g , t h e c jv il a n d p o l it ' ic a l rig h t s l h a v e
be e n more emphasizedthan t h e rig h t s iv h e re t h e S e c o n drrlo rld-a c t u a l ly
a lso a part of the Occiden t , t h e s o c ia ljs t c o u n t rie s -s e e t h e ms e lv e s
a s stronqer" Moreclver,in t h e ra n k in g o f s t a t e s t h e we s t e rn s t a t e s
by and large stand out as be in g h ig h e s t in t h e f u lf jllme n * . o f h u ma n
r j qh ts norms so l.hat'.whate v e rt h e re a s o n f o r t h is n ra yb e ra d ime n s io n
ha s been instit.ut.jonal'ized wh e re b y t h e c e n t e r re ma in s t h e c e n t e r
an d t"he periphery the per ip h e ry . I t is a ls o p o s s ib le f o r c o u n t rie s
i n th e l^ Jestto see themselv e s a s . ru d iie s o v e t ' t h e re s t o f t h e wo r1 d ,
distr ibutinq certi Ficates of h iq h a rt d lo w le v e ls o f f u lf i' llme n t ,
inrzestioa-tihcr
- objE cllon to r^tra-textent states all over: a::e lirrino un to tht*norrn.s.
ITr e
woulC b e t h a t it is lik e t h is b e c a u s et h e t ^ le s t
si m ply is best"as also evid e n c e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e re a re mo re
pe o p ie wanting to migrate i n t o t h e l' J e s tt h a n in t o o t h e r p a rt s o f
the world. A nd the counter-o b je c t io n is , o f c o u rs e , t h a t t h is is
b e ca u seWe sth a s
i n its powerto define what is "best",
rdealth that attr:acts reol] e- i;r-il tiie ok u"ri- ous
not-,to rnention to coneent::ate
''
j-lts
- t . h a t a n o rm (s u c h a s c a re ' f o r t h e a g e d within
];1 ,[:ctifrc,. rri tr'c;tiii
th e fanri1y itse'lf ) more adh e re d t o ' in t h e n o n -We s tt h a n in t h e
West would have a hard time b e in g a c c e p t e d a s a " h u ma nrig h t " ,
an d prr:bably never would'at le a s t a s lo n g a s t h e We s t h a s t h e
pcwer t0 prevent
I't.
The TjTestv.rcmldaccent as riohts
jn t-l-rei{est than in the non-T^rest,li]us
(2):
TIMt. The wes[ern time perspectjve
con vergenceto an ideal qd: _ Ullq g ,
norrs rplrs "fulfilled
Lop 1ol';iLlori'
tlrelr'
i':uararifeeitil;
is that
of ptogress,
asyntptotic
p o s s ib ly wit h a c ris is
b e f o re
th a t state of affairr,is att a jn e d . T h e h u ma nrig h t s c o n c e p t u a liz a t io n
js to a large extent of tfra t k in d . T h e re s e e n rt o b e t wo p ro c e s s e s
at w ork. 0n the one hand the re is a g iv e n s e t f J -h u ma n rig h t s a n d
th e pajn-stak'inq, sometinre sq u ic k , ' t r)ii: r, : t . i: ic e / p ro c e s s o f s t a t e s
in fu lf ill'ing the norms, ho p e f u l' ly c o n v e rg in g a s y mp t o t ic a ily t o
t h e s e c o n d p ro c e s s o f e x p a n d in g
th e set of norms, f inding n e w h u ma nrig h t s , ' in s t it u t ' io n a l iz i n g t h e m,
tha t ideal state. B ut then t h e re ' is
the r eby approximatrng the'id e a l s o c ie t y in a p ro c e s s o f n o rm e x p a n s io n .
Co r njned
br these two process e s wi I I a lwa y s a s s L rret h e I e a d e rs h ip o f
- 10 -
th e leaders: those who are f a irly
h ig h o n ' imp le me n t in g n o rn isb u t
see otheecatching up can re t a in le a d e rs h ip a n d d is t a n c e t o o t h e r
co u n trjes (essential in a c e n t e r-p e rip h e ry c o n z e p t u a l' iz a t ' io no f t h e
wo r ld) hy adding new rules t o t h e g a me . A t t h e e n d o f t h e p ro c e s s
i s p aradise, and those jn t h e c e n t e r a re t o d e f in e wh a t p a ra d is e
lo o ks likerand tend to defjn e jt jn s u c h a v ' t a yt h a t t h e y t h e ms e lv e s
are closest.
Ir other:s shoufd ca-tch un,alJ- thev have to do j-s to nroCuce
ne\^7 nOITnS.
( 3 ) : KN OV lLtDGt.
The western kno wle d g es t ru c t u re is a t c m' is t c / d e d u c t iv e ,
a s o pposedto hol istjc,rdiale c t ' ic t h a . t .c a n b e f o u n d s o meo t h e r
pla ces. The fragmentary, at o n is t . ic a s p e c t is re f le c t e d in t wo
w ays: the in(iyidual
as the u n jt o f n o rn rf u lf illme n t
as opposed
to the group, and the single n o rm a s t h e u n jt o f a c c o u n t . f n s t e a . d
of h olistic j:;cfi:.rer*s of w h o le c o u n t rie s a s " c h n is t ia n " o r " c ' iv ' iliz e d " o r " , s o c i a Lfist"
co m esthe painstaking
:le i--p : ? ij: : i -liic , h u ma n rrg h t * o : e a -t iz a t io n
fdr
M i ndjvjduals on N v:r'i:r--.. 1 -r-, s f -h u ma
rignh t s . T h e ma t rix ' is f o rm' id a b le
like an enormousswitchbord wh e re re d lig h t . s . in d ic a t e d e f ic ie n c ie s
to be eliminated through ad e q u a t e n o rm f u lf illme n t . A g a in it is
of vlhether this" i-s
good or b a d , o n ly a q u e s t io n o f n o t in g we s t e rn
no t a question
{
ep istemology at urr:rkwith it . s g re a t a t t e n t io n t o t h e s o c ' ia l a t o m,
th e 'ind'iv'idual and the con c e p t u a l a t o m, t h e s p e c if ic v a r. ia b le ,
th e j ustic'iable 1egal norm .
( 4) : M ANOV E RNA IURI. The weste rn p e rs p e c t iv e is t h a t o f
lg lls g f a l!
o ve r nature, nreaningthat ma n h a s t h e rig h t t o ma n ip u la t e n a t u re
m or e or less as he wants, na t u re e x is t in g f g L lE I ,
n o t g n : lj! .
0 n e part'icular aspect of th is is t h e u n l' irrit e d rjg h t t o k i1 1 a n in ra ls
for humanconsuntption,even t o e x p o s e t h e m t o h ig h ly p a in f u i t re a t m en t jn the fclrm of "exper ime n t s " , p re s u ma b lyf o r h u ma nb e t t e rn e n t
insisht
g::.inrrr-i : n
r i-rt"i:,,r.nr,'
beinos
matters rel ati ng to health and d j sease. Hr.:rnan
rftw oain a r:ioht to a "clean enrrironr.ent, but the envl:ronrent has no;=ryt}
l_rtgt!,"".
jt
' -rn f a jr t o s a y t h a t t h is a n t h ro p o c e n t ric
I do not think
n a n cnorri'o js fully reflect e d jn t h e h u ma nrig h t s t ra d it io n , e v e n
i n the name"humanrights".
A n ' ima l rig h t s a re n o w (jo k in g ly ) b e in g
con sidered, nat.ure's rights mig h t b e a ro u n d t h e c o rn e r. B u t , t h e y
-tl
4a
a r e late in coming and fia5r3 l s o c o met o o la t e .
i, n d t ire n t n e re
is
the problem of who shall be t h e n o rin -s e n d e rswh e n t h e d ire c t iy
co n cernedparties are not a rt ic u la t ' in g in a ma n n e ru n d e rs t a n d a b le
to the norm receivers, the s t a t e s ? A rt ic u la t ' io n h a s t o b e me d ia t e d
thr o ugh humanbe'ings, anima l lo v e rs a n d n a t u re lo v e rs , a n d t h e ir
a r tj culation
it
may be far fro m re lia b le .
L . e a v in gt h a t p o in t a s id e
i s clear that in the lac k o f c o n s id e ra t io n f o r n o n -h u ma n a t u re
a p o s'it'ion has been taken, a n d t h a t p o s it io n is e n t jre ly ' in
a g re e me n t
with western civj'l'ization, in g e n e ra l,a t t h is p o in t .
( 5) : M AN0V tR MA N.The western p o s it io n t o d a y ' r: o mh rin evse rt ' ic a l jt y a n d
i nd ividualism in a strongly c o n t p e t it iv e s y s t e m o f re la t io n s d e f in in g
win n ers and losers. The mo d e l s k e t c h e d o f t h e h u n ra nrig h t s c o n c e p t
ab o ve is in accordancewith t h ' is . T h e re is t h e p rima c y o f t h e s t a t e
ove r indivjciuals, but not u n c o n d . it . io n a llys o " in d iv id u a ls a re
su b jected to the state as cit ' iz e rrs (s u b je c t s ), b u t a re e n L it le d
l o h umanri ghts i n return " Ho we v e r,v t it h o e rh a p s a s n t u c ha s 9 0 ii
o f the econori'icassets decjd e d o v e r, c e n t ra ily rin s ' id e n a t io n s t a t e s
( a n d nrost of the rest at th e in t e rn a t jo n a l le v e l, le a v in g a lmo s t
no thing to the local level b e c a u s e lo c a l a s s e t s a re s n a ll a n d
u lt"i mately t'ied up with ce n t ra l d e c is jo n s ), a n d t h is is re p e a t e d
in the admin'istrative decis io n s , v e rt ic a l it y is c e rt a in ly b u ilt
in to the corrc€pt. It niiqht lo o k t o s o mea s if t h js is n o t t h e
ca se when the fccus 'is on t h e r wo rd rr: . : t g ; : t t t a lo n e ; c o u p le d wjt h
the v;crd 'rdutytfit becomesmo re c 1 e a . ! / B u t t h is v e rt ic a l it y ' is
fou n d in most social constru c t io n s . b J h a tma k e sf o r ' . , , r. : r, ri, c rrin e siss
the way it. is coupied to jn d ' iv id u a l is n r,in s t ro n g ly c o mo e t it iv e
r ela tions. Hunran
rights bec c lmein d iv id u a l riq h t s t o t h e e x t e n t
'individual
tha t
s are the no rm o b je c t s , t h e u n it s t o wh ' ic h t h e n o rms
a r e rel ated and 'in which th e y a re u l t ' ima t . e ly f u 1 f i I I e d . T h i s
e xcludes people's rjghts an d t h e rig h t s o f g ro u p s , s u c h a s
in d ig enous qroups, ancient p e o p ie s , . n o n -we s t e rnc u lt u re s p o c k e t e d
'i nside western societies an d rt f f it irit u t u
those
states. The cond"it'ionfor be n e f it in g f ro m t h e rig h t s is n o t o n ly t h : t
- p e i n r-n n p t r'
' ,i i th
duties,lu!
also that they accept- *the
peonle
-
r i qh ts as'indivjduals,
t(
-
not a s g ro u p s . T h e rig h t t o e d u c a t io n me a n s
right to h a v e a c c e s s t o t h e p u b lic s c h o o ls Ta s
e a ch llljliugl's
d e f i ned !V an.do,rganized by t h e s t a t e . f t d o e s n o t n e c e s s a rily me a n
-Ql- an - ]_ncrfc'enot].s./
group to in s t it u t io n a l' iz e it s o wn t y p e o f e d u c a t ' io n ,
th e right'-*
e xce pt for details in conn e c t io n wit h s o met y p e s o f re lig io n a n d
l an g uagej nstructi on . The ri g h t s a re a ' ls o c o u p le d v rit h t h e d u t ' ie s
to not only permit but hel p t h e s t a t e in d o in g wh a t t h e s t a t e d e e ms
ne cessary in order to imple me n tt h e rig h t s . T h u s , if mo n e y . is
n e e ded f'cr
the welfare s t a t e t h e n t h e s t a t e rn ig h t b e lie v e in
hyd r oelectric plans'in ord e r t o p ro v id e e n e rg y c h e a p ly ' in a ma rk e t a bl e
fo r m rand also tr: makea pr o f it
o n t h e s a le o f e n e rq y . I n d o in q s o
th e s tate might act agains t t h e in t e re s t s o f g ro u p s , f o r in s t a n c e
r :if nai'ive populationsor of " n a t u re lo v e rs " , B u t a s t h e re a re (a lmo s t )
n o g rcup rights, only ind iv jd u a l rig h t s ' t h e re
is n o wa y in lv h jc h
th 1 s would be reflected as a c o u n t e rv a ilin g h u ma nrig h t . e o t h e r: io h t o f t h e
l)Jorv,zeclian
Sarneto reta,in lancl intact for a i^eincreer basecr culture, unclistur:becl
bv hvdr,oelectric Drtu/er nl,ants.
( 6) : G OD0V t,RMA N. In addjt'ion t o a ll t h a t h a s b e e n s a ' id a b o v e t h e
we stern perspective also p re s u p p o s e sa n o v e r-rid in g p rin c ' ip ie .
It vras God in the o1d days , o n e o r mo re o f t h e s u c c e s s o rs t o G o d
no wadays.One of these suc c e s s o rs js t h e 9 t a t e , a n d t h e s t a t e is
sha ped in the imagecf
a b e n e v o le n t , o mn is c ' ie n ta n d o mn ip o t e n tliin g ,
as po'inted out above. The h u ma nrig h t s c o n t rib u t e t o t h js c o n b e e n ma d eu s e o f :
sl r uction. A nd tfre argunlen t h a s a lre a c f ir
i t j s j n th e i n te re st o f the eniightenedstate to take on an ever i n c r e a si n gn u mb e o
r f n o rmsandimplementthemjn the for m of human
r "i g htsl b e ca u se
th e co n d j tion for r neelingthe.lgtJ,*^[gr ld be an
i n c r e a si n g l y stro n g sta te capableof extr actitigJ- ilr fiJsfr onr the
c i t i l en ry. T h e n e w ccn trat
Thus,
tl-e hrrnan v-i-ohts rnint
.Qfafo
anrl
J-ha
c.|_a1_a
Eocia.l s:tar ts iocki- ns I ike the ot r i c ne,
unlr^.rords : not
qrrc1-om
to Gocl, but
to
success,,
,, the
Tonc*Tu5]'onl'it'iT'i'of1ffffbFd the humanrights are located. Qn any-one
ortr'ffiilrnensionsthatcounts.ri.R.-&.ruou"'i.,'jfr-*.*it?l]ii,'"oo.nat.io
l\.
o f h u m a nr i g h ts i s a p ro p a g a tionof l.{ ester ncivil ization, and is or obably
the qgestion: what
a l s o p a r t l y i n te n d e da s su ch . And that m akesone ask
t*.i.r.y,d,
co nFt.cls
ar e the concrete conseqrrences
in t e rms o f c o n t ra d jc t io n lv f h a -t -h a v e s h o wn uF r
2- r td
m ay sooner or later show u p mo re c le a rly ,
b o t h wit h in a n d b e t we e n
sta tes, a nd ultinrately for indjv id u a ls ? r t h in k it is h io h t jre i^ res t a rt an s v r e r i n g
that question and ston seeino the hu:nan ric.hts tr^aCi,tr on as an unrniticrateC ococi. l.t
is the nroduet of a certain er:a and, a certa_'i,ncrvi_lrzat-.ion - of the st.ate-builrrino
nha-se in T'Testemcivi-.lization.
Tlhe sea.rch for: uni-rzrer:salhrrrnanri-ohts ls still
on anc'lis an enCless nroject.
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