Intercultural communication and the essence of humour

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宇都宮大学国際学部研究論集　2010,　第29号,　23−34
Intercultural communication and the essence of humour
Reimann Andrew
Introduction
A major focus of studies in intercultural
communication deals with developing awareness
large amount of insight into understanding a particular
language group’s culture, communication styles,
strategies and perspectives.
of how language and culture function and interact
In cross cultural communication, humour is
within mutually recognizable, global or universal
often used as a powerful speech act for breaking the
environments. Cross cultural communication requires
ice, building relationships or diffusing a difficult
awareness of the assumptions one makes as well as
situation. However, universal, the idea of “funny” is
awareness of the assumptions and expectations of
rarely translatable and is highly personal, context and
others. Generally, the basic assumptions essential to
culture specific. As a result many jokes, sarcastic or
normal communication are underlying and hidden.
ironical remarks which may be deeply tied to culture
Gudykunst and Kim (2003) note that as a result of
are often unperceived, misunderstood or offensive.
the covert nature of cultural assumptions they are
This presentation will explore examples of humour
taken for granted and therefore difficult to explain.
in communication and describe ways in which they
An observable example of cultural assumptions in
may be applied to the EFL classroom, used to bridge
practice involves speech acts or communicative
cultures and work as a mutual communication strategy.
situations and rituals. Speech acts are words or
The first section will provide background on various
phrases that accompany social situations to facilitate
methods, mediums and styles of humour as well as
communication. Culturally universal speech acts such
several case studies and examples from Japan, U.K.
as greeting or thanking, are for the most part easy to
Canada and America. The final section will report on a
translate and understand, as these exist in most cultures
survey of Japanese University student’s perceptions of
and languages. However there are many cases in which
“funny” by analysing and ranking several examples
communicative situations are unique or culture specific
of humour from a selection of international film and
and are difficult to interpret or transfer. These acts do
television media. In conclusion the factors effecting
not cross over as there may not be a corresponding
the success or failure of humour in interpersonal and
situation in the target language or culture. High
intercultural settings will be clarified.
context languages such as Japanese, which rely
heavily on shared knowledge and relationships for
Introduction and Relevance to Intercultural
communication and negotiation of meaning have
Communication
many such conventions (Hall 1976). Some examples
Although laughter is a universal neurological
include the expressions宜しくyoroshiku, お疲れ様
event, what makes us laugh is dependent on many
otsukaresama or the procedures of 告白kokuhaku.
variables and therefore problematic to quantify,
These are strong relationship building devices which
generalise or explain in relations to humour. Humour
are virtually impossible to translate into English as the
may produce other reactions besides laughter and
equivalent social situations do not exist. Decoding the
laughter may not always be a sign of amusement. The
dynamics behind various speech acts can provide a
challenge of understanding this has been the endless
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Reimann Andrew
quest of many including jesters, bards, entertainers,
can become embarrassing, nonsensical, inappropriate,
writers, comedians, sociologists, psychologists,
offensive or plain meaningless. As stated by Immanuel
philosophers and linguists. There are three basic
Kant "Laughter is an effect that arises if a tense
theories of humour which highlight the social,
expectation is transformed into nothing." Whether
psychological and philosophical influences. These
or not expectations can be managed or light hearted
include; Incongruity theory, Superiority theory and
and playful intended utterances are indeed perceived
Relief theory.
as such, is the key to instilling laughter. Of crucial
・Incongruity theory sees humour as a response
importance is the understanding and awareness of
or reaction to ambiguity, logical impossibility,
context. This affects all other variables and essentially
irrelevance, or inappropriateness. Such
determines the fate of any humorous endeavours.
cognitive shift humour is most associated
Awareness of context includes knowing your
with philosophers Immanuel Kant and
audience, being sensitive to both cultural and personal
Søren Kierkegaard. This type of humour is
taboos, values and perspectives as well as a basic
characteristic of the typical joke formula
sense of appropriateness. Timing is a factor of this and
which establishes a belief, provides confirming
requires understanding of language, degree of shared
evidence and then breaks from that train of
background knowledge, sensitivity to environment
thought by proving that the original premise was
and advanced discourse awareness. Intent is also
indeed false.
crucial as it is often veiled and may well be part of the
・Superiority theory, initially developed by
humour. How intent is interpreted will determine the
Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes the aggressive
reception of humour. A harmless joke, a witty remark,
feelings that fuel humour and states that humour
an interesting anecdote, a sarcastic comment or a sharp
arises from a thrill or euphoria created when
insult can originate from the same utterance however
feeling supremacy over others. This type of
the consequences will vary greatly depending on the
humour would likely involve belittling a peer,
audience’s reception and interpretation. If one is not in
satire, sarcasm empathizing with a fool or jester.
tune with the audience or the context, a well intended
・Relief theory, which is most associated with
ice breaker could backfire as a searing rebuke. In this
Freud, views humour as a basic method
regard, especially in cases of cross cultural discourse,
for releasing negative energy or feelings of
careful consideration of time, place and occasion
repression. This would include any type of light
conventions is essential. Within these communication
hearted and frivolous humour such as sight
styles and politeness strategies, social distance, degree
gags, clown antics or simple word play.
of formality and basic etiquette all play important
Trying to determine the essence behind humour has
roles. “Men show their character in nothing more
vast implications for understanding language and
clearly than by what they think laughable.” Johann
communication strategies, psychology and cognitive
Wolfgang von Goethe.
processes as well as social, personal or cultural
For humour to be successfully understood and
values, beliefs, attitudes and perspectives. The key
enjoyed across the cultural divide; not only must
to understanding these processes and conventions
the purveyor be aware of the previously mentioned
on either a personal or social level requires a deeper
social conventions, but also adept at communication,
consideration of the structure and method of humour in
selecting content, sensing an opportunity and spinning
a particular context, timing and intent. Most attempts at
a good yarn (story). This skill is typically referred to
humour fail because one or more of these elements are
as a “sense of humour”. A sense of humour also
either; misinterpreted, ignored or too ambiguous. As
requires being able to forgo logical conclusions and
a result an otherwise amusing quip, joke or anecdote
abandon your belief system or reliance on common
Intercultural communication and the essence of humour
25
sense. Most humour depends on shared knowledge and
variety shows, scatological referencing, irony, sarcasm
background, however, in intercultural situations this is
or the ubiquitous and formulaic logic bending joke.
usually the one element that is missing and the cause
The following will highlight some relevant examples
of most cultural conundrums and misunderstandings.
of humour from Japan, Britain, America and Canada.
In an analysis of various types of humour, Lee (1994)
In Japan humour is governed by strong
concluded that humour is the most challenging
social conventions especially hierarchy, harmony,
form of intercultural communication. Lee stated
formality, context, membership and insider/shared
that humour is a communicative situation in which
perspectives. The protocols created by these social
we must make new conventional rules that involve
forces characterised as uchi内 (private) /soto外
explicitly discussing the cultural knowledge that we
(public) and tatemae建前 (overt,formal)/hone本音
take for granted in the humorous message. However
(covert, hidden) make it almost impossible for humour
in most instances, this information is not stated as it is
to be spontaneous or unexpected in a natural setting.
often an essential part of the humour itself. Types of
Although Japanese are very humorous, fun loving
humour which are deeply rooted in culture, linguistic
people and not significantly different from any other
knowledge or “insider” perspectives usually fail
group in regard to enjoying laughter; the time, place
to cross over the cultural abyss. Most universally
and acceptability for uncontrolled outbursts is carefully
appreciated examples of humour are those that are
observed or limited to warai no ba 笑いの場 (laughter
simple, highly visual and in tune with the basics
places). In Japan humour rarely crosses hierarchical
of innate or more primal levels of human common
borders nor appears in formal contexts. In many
sense. Explaining or translating a spontaneous gag
cultures however the opposite is true and humour is
or witty remark will rarely result in the desired effect
often employed as a politeness strategy, equalizing
of laughter. According to E.B. White, "Humour can
power distances, reducing social anxiety and generally
be dissected as a frog can, but… …the thing dies in
assisting communication in tense situations. This
the process and the innards are discouraging to any
would not work in Japan and would likely have the
but the pure scientific mind." With this in mind it
opposite effect. In a survey of humorous utterances
is possible to explore examples of humour usage in
in daily conversations in both English and Japanese,
various cultures for the purpose of understanding
Takekuro (1997) found that on average there were
the conventions, rules, techniques, expectations,
four times as many examples of humour in English
methods and taboos. This will not necessarily result in
conversation than in Japanese. In English 30% of
success as a multicultural comedian but will heighten
these occurred in formal situations whereas there
understanding of communication styles, cultural values
were no instances in Japanese. Similarly in the case of
and social conventions.
Japanese, humour was limited to family and friends
There are many types of humour which vary
and there were no examples found between new
according to media type, audience and social context.
acquaintances or strangers. These are very interesting
Cultural preferences also determine what methods
and revealing results in that they highlight not only
are most conducive to laughter and which are not
important cultural values and communication styles
appreciated or appropriate. According to Mark Twain,
but also clearly outline the format and preferences
“The humorous story is American, the comic story is
for humour and jovial communication. As Japanese
English, the witty story is French. The humorous story
value harmony, humour being unpredictable, is often
depends for its effect upon the manner of the telling;
avoided as there is a good possibility that difficult
the comic story and the witty story upon the matter.”
feelings may arise as a result of a gag gone awry.
Some common humour genres include satire,
Traditionally, although this is changing, many felt
wordplay, sight gags, slapstick, stand up comedy or
that public laughter was shameful. Women tended
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Reimann Andrew
to cover their mouths when laughing and men tried
Japan is a type of word play called洒落 (sha-re) this
to avoid displaying such emotion all together. In the
is a form of punning which utilizes pivot words掛
Chrysanthemum and the Sword, Ruth Benedict (1946)
詞 (kakekotoba) or homonyms to make amusing or
outlines a hierarchy of emotions in Japan which ranks
ambiguous utterances. In a study of media broadcasts,
laughter below anger and grief, stipulating that any
Nagashima (1999) found that more than ten percent
such display is best controlled. This lends credence to
of all advertisements and announcements employed a
the proverb顔で笑って心で泣いて“kao de waratte
form of Sha-re to emphasise their message. There are
kokoro de naite.” Similarly, Lafcadio Hearn (1904)
linguistic, religious and social reasons why this form
in his “Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan” called this
of humour is most widely used. The Japanese language
nonverbal expression the “Japanese Smile” and
consists of only about 21 phonemes (compared to
suggested that smiling was the preferred strategy
41 in English) resulting in an unusual number of
for dealing with shame, grief or anger and diffusing
homonyms, creating a natural tendency for word play
difficult situations and was rarely seen to signify
or double entendre. From Shinto, many Japanese
actual laughter or amusement. Considering these
believe that words possess spirit and soul, this is
cultural parameters, raises the question as to the exact
reflected in literary styles as俳句haiku and短歌tanka
consistency and nature of Japanese humour.
and allows for shar-re style humour to be respected
For the most part Japanese humour is extremely
in the same vein. In social situations, sha-re follows
complex, multi dimensional and carefully planned,
the conventions of maintaining harmony in that the
making it more of an art form than a spontaneous
audience always has a way out. Rather than being
vehicle for diversion. In a series of articles in the
direct and obnoxious like many western jokes, sha-
Japan Times, Pulvers (2009) describes Japanese
re offers an amusing or intellectual observation which
humour as “harmless fun” seldom at the expense
is purposefully ambiguous and can either be taken at
of others, refraining from exploiting or exposing
face value, ignoring the pun, or laughed at depending
taboos, the sacred or the profane. Dirty jokes or
on the context or feeling of the audience. Considering
下ネタ (shimoneta) are usually avoided and most
Japanese social conventions this makes sha-re a highly
preferences involve a “comedy of manners”
appropriate medium for humour. This also helps to
or social indiscretions traditionally involving an
clarify why many types of foreign comedy or humour
unassuming country yokel おのぼりさん・尾登
fail in Japan or are met with a forced giggle and the
さん (onoborisan) adapting to the sophistication of
muttering of “Ah American Joke!”
the city. This is typical of漫才 (manzai), a form of
In comparison American humour tends to be more
stand up comedy and ワイドwaido or variety shows
individualistic and places emphasis on performance,
which employ the standard routine of ぼけboke (the
overstating, exaggerating through hyperbole or silly
fool) and tsukomi つっこみ (the sharp man). Such
antics (Rourke, 1931). American’s are not usually
formulas are characteristic of popular Manzaiコン
embarrassed by their emotions and as a result do
ビ (combinations) such asダウンタウン Downtown,
not mind laughing loudly or drawing attention to
Sanma Akashiya 明石家さんま, Beat Takeshi ビー
themselves. Major influences on this type of humour
トたけし or Tamori タモリ. This type of お笑い
come from Jewish communities and culture. Including
(owarai) humour is highly context and culture specific
the comedy styles of The Three Stooges, The Marx
and any outsider, unfamiliar with the subtleties of
Brothers, Rodney Dangerfield, Jackie Mason, Woody
Japanese society or common sense, would be totally
Allen, Mel Brooks, Jerry Seinfeld, Jon Stewart, Lewis
oblivious to the finer meanings and nuances which
Black and Larry David. This type of humour tends
make it interesting or laughable. In public or less
to be more open and accessible as it often ignores
scripted venues, the most popular form of humour in
hierarchy, relationships and formality, however
Intercultural communication and the essence of humour
27
satirizing such sacred cows as the social system,
a hybrid of British and American styles. The default
patriotism or national security through sarcasm and
humour or communication strategy for most Canadians
irony, is less typical (Pegg, 2007). An exception
is satire. Whether it is the vast geographic distances,
to this is Saturday Night Live, one of the longest
linguistic diversity or multicultural differences, as
running comedy shows in America (1975-present).
a shared identity, Canadians like to make fun of
The show is infamous for pushing the taboo envelope
everything as a coping mechanism, and nothing and
and has been the starting point for some of comedies
no one is off limits. This often causes problems in
biggest names including: Eddie Murphy, Chevy
the international sphere as Canada has been rebuked
Chase, Chris Rock, Ben Stiller, Billy Crystal, Mike
in the past for ridiculing dignitaries and heads of
Myers and Dan Aykroyd. In general less high brow,
state. George W. Bush refused to be interviewed
observational techniques like those used by stand up
by the CBC for the duration of his presidency after
comedians are preferred as is slapstick or physical,
being duped into calling the Prime Minister of
vaudevillian, comedy. If an American were to make
Canada “Jean Poutine” by a comedian posing as a
a sarcastic or ironic remark and however obvious the
reporter in 2000. Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau was
erroneous intention, it would usually be followed by
also criticised for dancing a pirouette and making
the qualifying remark; “Just kidding!”
questionable gestures while walking behind an
British humour in contrast tends to be more
oblivious Queen Elizabeth II in Buckingham Palace.
deeply ingrained in language, culture and society and
Canadian variety or comedy shows similarly base
is highly ironic and satirical in nature. The stereotype
their routine around tricking people, catching someone
of dry British wit, characteristic of Oscar Wilde,
off guard or ridiculing the latest trend or headline.
Monty Python, Benny Hill, The Two Ronnies or Ricky
Examples of this include the hidden camera style Just
Gervais is often difficult to comprehend as it is deeply
for Laughs in which unsuspecting people are filmed in
veiled in rhetoric and innuendo. Contrary to the stiff
embarrassing encounters or Rick Mercer’s “Talking
upper lip image portrayed by British popular comedy,
to Americans”, where the stereotype of American
Britain’s do indeed enjoy slapstick and silliness.
ignorance is tested through random interviews about
Both Benny Hill and John Cleese are notorious for
fake headlines and nonsensical Canadian trivia.
their zaniness and wild escapades. Mr. Bean one of
Following the British models, farcical shows such
the most successful and internationally distributed
as Wayne and Shuster (1940-1990) have been quite
examples of British comedy represents a balance of
successful. The duo who appeared on the Ed Sullivan
simple visual gags and antics with deeper British wit
show a record 67 times were even ranked as the best
and sarcasm. According to Rowan Atkinson (Mr.
comedy team in America in the 1960’s. This type
Bean), an object or a person can become funny in
of humour was very sophisticated yet silly and light
three different ways. By behaving in an unusual way,
hearted. They were dubbed “the harbingers of literate
by being in an unusual place or by being the wrong
slapstick” and appealed to a wide range of Americans
size. This is a basic and universally popular formula
becoming hugely popular on both sides of the border.
for typical sight gags or slap stick humour. This type
Canadian humour can also be very dark and cynical to
of humour is highly adaptable across cultures provided
the extent that it is often difficult to distinguish serious
that the objects, artefacts and instruments in question
comments from sarcastic wit. This can be a difficult
are familiar enough to be considered part of common
cultural obstacle as such utterances are often perceived
sense or logical in their representation, appearance and
as rude, crass or insincere. Self deprecation is also
application.
a standard Canadian form of humour, again being
Canadian humour, perhaps as a result of its
the cold and barren neighbour of the most powerful
colonial history and geographic location, represents
country in the world, Canada’s only defence is to
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laugh at itself. As a model for humour in intercultural
imagine Mr. Bean acting out a similar scenario, and
communication, this Canadian tradition may well be
most likely this visual quality of the joke boosts its
most appropriate, as the best laugh is always at your
international appeal. Subsequent results from this
own expense.
study also revealed several strong cultural differences
In 2000 a survey was conducted in Britain to
determine what serves as a model for intercultural
in humour. Some of the most notable findings are as
follows:
humour. As the joke is the most concrete and formulaic
・Many European countries, such as France,
of the many types and varieties of humour, jokes were
Denmark and Belgium, displayed a penchant
collected from around the world and recorded into the
for off-beat surreal humour as well as jokes
largest such database ever complied. Over 350,000
that involved making light of topics that make
people from 70 countries logged onto a special
people feel anxious, such as death, illness and
website, and provided data that was used to explore
marriage.
various aspects of the psychology of humour. People
・People from the Republic of Ireland, the UK,
from all nationalities were invited to judge jokes as
Australia and New Zealand most enjoyed jokes
well as contribute their own. This research, carried
involving word plays.
out by psychologist Dr. Richard Wiseman, from the
・Americans and Canadians preferred jokes where
University of Hertfordshire, through a “LaughLab”
there was a strong sense of superiority -- either
website, attracted more than 40,000 jokes and almost
because a character looks stupid or is made to
two million ratings. These were then ranked and
look stupid by someone else.
categorised in order to determine the funniest and most
Wiseman concluded that:
universal joke.
"These results are really interesting. It
The final result for the most successful and universally
suggests that people from different parts
funny joke is as follows:
of the world have fundamentally different
Two hunters are out in the woods when
senses of humour. Humour is vital to
one of them collapses. He doesn't seem to
communication and the more we understand
be breathing and his eyes are glazed. The
about how people's culture and background
other guy takes out his phone and calls the
affect their sense of humour, the more we
emergency services.
will be able to communicate effectively.
He gasps: "My friend is dead! What can I
Also, we find jokes funny for lots of
do?" The operator says: "Calm down, I can
different reasons. They sometimes make us
help. First, let's make sure he's dead." There
feel superior to others, reduce the emotional
is a silence, then a gunshot is heard. Back on
impact of anxiety-provoking situations
the phone, the guy says: "OK, now what?"
or surprise us because of some kind of
Whether or not this example works as a model for
incongruity. The hunters joke contained all
intercultural humour, the hunter joke was most highly
three elements."
rated by a variety of international participants. This
may be due to the fact that the situation and subject
Wiseman, R. (2002)
Survey
matter depicted are more or less universal and not
culture specific. The pattern, rhythm and set up are
Considering the information and cultural variations
very straight forward and typical of this type of
in humour described in this report, the subsequent
formula joke. The break or gap in logic also does
investigation will propose to answer the following
not depend on shared knowledge nor is it language,
questions by surveying groups of university students
context or culture specific. One could perhaps easily
regarding their humour preferences while having
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Intercultural communication and the essence of humour
them view and rank several examples of international
however males indicated that they enjoyed foreign
humour.
humour more than females. Scores for general humour
Questions to be considered in analysis include:
preferences were not significantly different with all
1. What is humour?
groups indicating that they enjoyed humour of one
・Are there any common or universal elements
form or another.
present in something funny?
Procedure and Method
・Are there any essential elements required for
Subjects viewed 12 examples of humorous media
something to be considered funny?
and completed a questionnaire indicating the degree
・Can the elements which constitute funniness be
of funniness, their understanding, and any significant
separated or isolated?
reasons. Each example ranged in length from 30
2. What psychological or cognitive factors are
seconds to 4 minutes and consisted of content from
involved in finding something funny?
US, UK, Japan and Canada. Some examples which
3. How is humour related to laughter? What other
included a Japanese theme were used in order to help
verbal or non verbal reactions are stimulated?
with context and understanding (Jack Ass, Austin
4. What elements allow humour to transcend cross
Powers, Budweiser “Wasabi”).
cultural boundaries?
Results and Discussion
Subjects
From analysis of the survey data, several trends
In order to analyse individual and cultural
become clear (Table 2 and 3).
・Japanese Language media had the highest
differences in humour appreciation and
comprehension, several groups of university students
scores.
were shown international samples of comedy and
・Women tended to prefer more verbal and
humorous media. Four intact groups were surveyed
multidimensional humour such as Monty
and data was collected from a total of 110 subjects
Python.
・Men preferred visual or non verbal humour (Mr.
(Table 1.). The groups consisted of English,
Economics, Science and Education majors. Age ranges
Bean or Jack Ass)
・There were significant variations within groups
were 18-25 and gender distribution was as follows;
72 male and 38 female. Most subjects were second
indicating strong individual differences.
year university students and approximately 25%
The lowest ranked examples contained either
had some form of experience abroad ranging from 1
culture specific themes and content or confusing and
week to 1 year. Female subjects tended to have had
unfamiliar language. There appears also to be a direct
more experience travelling abroad than male subjects
correlation between comprehension and ability to
Table 1. Subject Demographics
Group
Gender
M
Economics
Foreign Experience
F
Mean
Enjoy Humour
Std. D.
Mean
Std. D.
Enjoy Foreign Humour
Mean
Std. D.
5
4
2.04
1.035
4.72
0.894
3.41
1.87
English
11
16
1.33
1.109
4.22
0.891
3.22
1.577
Education
26
15
1.37
0.538
4.41
0.728
3.49
1.143
Science
30
4
1.7
1
3.59
1.499
2.65
1.323
Male
72
n/a
1.43
0.852
4.11
1.205
3.2917
1.398
Female
n/a
38
1.64
0.986
4.07
0.983
2.84
1.288
1.45
0.871
4.11
1.118
3.1589
3.158
Total Avg.
110
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understand humour and score. This is not surprising
Japanese language media was most highly ranked
however further analysis would be necessary to
supports this however the degree to which language
determine whether this is in fact a trend or if the
affects humour was not directly measured.
subjects are responding to expectations. The fact that
Table 2. Group Ranking of Humour (0 not funny-5 very funny)
Group
Economics
English
Education
Science
Male
Female
Total
Group
Borat
0.82
2.11
1.41
1.44
1.48
1.71
1.58
Tampopo
Economics
English
Education
Science
Male
Female
Total
2.61
2.62
2.43
2.38
2.54
2.38
2.49
Jack Ass
3.41
2.55
3.9
3.3
3.52
2.89
3.36
U.S. CM
1.56
1.74
2.24
1.85
2.04
1.87
2.03
Japan CM
2.36
3.48
4.24
2.7
3.43
3.58
3.54
Mr. Bean
3.04
3.92
3.9
3.29
3.84
3.33
3.71
Sushi
3.33
4.33
3.95
4.23
4.01
4.38
4.15
Austin Powers
1.73
2.25
2.1
2.03
2.18
1.97
2.11
Wayne &
Shuster
2.23
n/a
2.34
1.91
2.13
2.33
2.17
Shimura Ken
Monty Python
2.02
n/a
4
2.56
3.21
3.71
3.36
Simpsons
1.55
n/a
4.22
2.5
3.31
3.57
3.37
1.38
n/a
2.44
1.94
2.19
2.33
2.22
Table 3. Humour Comprehension
Could you understand the humour?
Group
Borat
Jack Ass
Yes
No
Yes
No
Economics
6.0% 94.0% 96.0%
4.0%
English
55.6% 44.4% 81.5% 18.5%
Education
18.9% 81.1% 97.3%
2.7%
Science
41.2% 58.8% 82.4% 17.6%
Male
31.9% 68.1% 87.5% 12.5%
Female
37.1% 62.9% 82.9% 17.1%
Total
33.6% 66.4% 86.0% 14.0%
Could you understand the humour?
Group
Tampopo
Austin Powers
Economics
English
Education
Science
Male
Female
Total
Yes
89%
96.3%
75.7%
85.3%
83.3%
88.6%
85.0%
No
11%
3.7%
24.3%
14.7%
16.7%
11.4%
15.0%
Yes
17%
77.8%
62.2%
88.2%
79.2%
65.7%
74.8%
No
93%
22.2%
37.8%
11.8%
20.8%
34.3%
25.2%
U.S. CM
Japan CM
Mr. Bean
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
48.0% 52.0% 64.0% 36.0% 93.0%
7.0%
44.4% 55.6% 88.9% 11.1% 100.0%
0.0%
59.5% 40.5% 100.0%
0.0% 89.2% 10.8%
73.5% 26.5% 91.2%
8.8% 100.0%
0.0%
62.5% 37.5% 93.1%
6.9% 100.0%
0.0%
51.4% 48.6% 94.3%
5.7% 88.6% 11.4%
58.9% 41.1% 93.5%
6.5% 96.3%
3.7%
Wayne &
Shuster
Yes
No
94%
6%
n/a
n/a
78.4% 21.6%
76.5% 23.5%
80.3% 19.7%
73.7% 26.3%
78.8% 21.3%
Shimura Ken
Monty Python
Yes
62%
n/a
94.6%
88.2%
86.9%
94.7%
88.8%
Yes
69%
n/a
97.3%
82.4%
88.5%
94.7%
90.0%
No
38%
n/a
5.4%
11.8%
13.1%
5.3%
11.3%
No
31%
n/a
2.7%
17.6%
11.5%
5.3%
11.0%
Sushi
Yes
No
100.0%
0.0%
100.0%
0.0%
100.0%
0.0%
97.1%
2.9%
100.0%
0.0%
97.1%
2.9%
99.1%
0.9%
Simpsons
Yes
34%
n/a
54.1%
35.3%
47.5%
36.8%
45.0%
No
66%
n/a
45.9%
64.7%
52.5%
23.2%
55.0%
31
Intercultural communication and the essence of humour
Table 4. Ranking by Gender
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Total
Sushi
Mr. Bean
Japan CM
Shimura Ken
Jack Ass
Monty Python
Tampopo
Simpsons
Wayne & Shuster
Austin Powers
U.S. CM
Borat
Male
Sushi
Mr. Bean
Jack Ass
Japan CM
Shimura Ken
Monty Python
Tampopo
Simpsons
Austin Powers
Wayne & Shuster
U.S. CM
Borat
Conclusion
Humour appreciation varies greatly by
personality, gender, experience and culture. Gender
Female
Sushi
Monty Python
Japan CM
Shimura Ken
Mr. Bean
Jack Ass
Tampopo
Wayne & Shuster
Simpsons
Austin Powers
U.S. CM
Borat
and developing an ability to engage successfully in
intercultural communication as well as foster higher
levels of cultural awareness both locally and globally.
differences suggest that women tend to have a
heightened sensitivity and preference for more
References
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Benedict, R. (94). The Chrysanthemum and the
further supported by neurological research which
has found that women access the prefrontal cortex,
the section of the brain associated with language and
memory, which is most affected while experiencing
humour or laughter more often than men (Reiss 2005).
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Japan Times. Tuesday, March 2, 200.
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Dillon, T. (2000). When intercultural humor is no
knowledge are, not surprisingly, the greatest barriers
joke. The Japan Times. Wednesday, February
to comprehension and enjoyment. Types of humour
th, 2000.
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Gudykunst,W. B., Kim, Y. Y. (2003). Communicating
knowledge or culture specific themes and artefacts
with strangers: An approach to intercultural
are more successful over a diverse demographic. This
communication (th ed.). New York: McGraw
explains why Borat’s antics or the Simpson’s ironies
Hill.
are lost on many international audiences. Nonverbal
Hall, E. (9). Hidden Differences, Doing Business
and context general examples like Mr. Bean or Jack
with the Japanese. New York, Anchor Press/
Ass are also as a result more successful with a wider
Double Day and Company.
range of audiences. From this investigation it becomes
clear that humour varies greatly not only across
cultures but on all levels of individual and social
Hearn, L. (94). Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan.
Kessinger Publishing.
Lee, W. S. (994). Communication about humor
difference. As there is no salient reasoning for this, the
as procedural competence in intercultural
only conclusion possible in considering this research
encounters. In L. A. Samovar & R. E. Porter
would suggest that a higher level of awareness and
(Eds.), Intercultural communication: A reader (th
sensitivity to the causes, effects and processes involved
ed., pp. 33-32). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
in humour are essential for understanding differences
Nagashima (999). Sha-re, Dajare-gaku Koto Hajime.
32
Reimann Andrew
Waraigaku Kenkyu, , Osaka: JSLHS, (999).
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Pegg, S. (200). What are you laughing at? The
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November 5 , 2000.
London, UK.
th
Appendix
Humour Analysis Survey
性別
男
女
外国の経験
なし
1週間(+)
1か月(+)
1年(+)
ユーモアとお笑いは好きですか?
0
1
2
3
4
5
外国のユーモアは好きですか?
0
1
2
3
4
5
1) Borat - Guide to America (8:08) (UK)
全く面白くない
0
普通
1
このユーモアを理解できますか?
2)
はいいいえ
とても面白い
5
4
とても面白い
5
4
とても面白い
5
4
とても面白い
5
4
とても面白い
5
いいえの場合はなぜ:
2
はいいいえ
3
いいえの場合はなぜ:
Bud “Wasabi!” Commercial (0:30) (U.S.)
全く面白くない
0
普通
1
このユーモアを理解できますか?
2
はいいいえ
3
いいえの場合はなぜ:
Japanese CM “Lost Voice” (1:37) (Japan)
全く面白くない
0
普通
1
このユーモアを理解できますか?
5)
4
普通
1
このユーモアを理解できますか?
4)
3
Jack Ass – Japan (2:58) (U.S.)
全く面白くない
0
3)
2
2
はいいいえ
3
いいえの場合はなぜ:
Mr Bean – Merry Christmas (25:43) (18:37- 21:54) (UK)
全く面白くない
0
このユーモアを理解できますか?
普通
1
2
はいいいえ
3
いいえの場合はなぜ:
33
Intercultural communication and the essence of humour
6)
Foreigners Guide to Sushi (8:08) (Japan)
全く面白くない
0
普通
1
このユーモアを理解できますか?
7)
はいいいえ
4
とても面白い
5
4
とても面白い
5
4
とても面白い
5
4
とても面白い
5
4
とても面白い
5
4
とても面白い
5
4
とても面白い
5
いいえの場合はなぜ:
普通
1
このユーモアを理解できますか?
2
はいいいえ
3
いいえの場合はなぜ:
Austin Powers – Sumo (16:07) (0:00 – 4:14) (U.S.)
全く面白くない
0
普通
1
このユーモアを理解できますか?
9)
3
Tampopo-Spaghetti Scene (6:32) (Japan)
全く面白くない
0
8)
2
2
はいいいえ
3
いいえの場合はなぜ:
Wayne & Shuster – Economy Class vs. First Class (6:47) (Canada)
全く面白くない
0
普通
1
このユーモアを理解できますか?
2
はいいいえ
3
いいえの場合はなぜ:
10) Shimura Ken 1985 (1:23) (Japan)
全く面白くない
0
普通
1
このユーモアを理解できますか?
2
はいいいえ
3
いいえの場合はなぜ:
11) Monty Python “Spam” (3:23) (UK)
全く面白くない
0
普通
1
このユーモアを理解できますか?
2
はいいいえ
3
いいえの場合はなぜ:
12) Simpsons Canada (2:19) (U.S.)
全く面白くない
0
このユーモアを理解できますか?
普通
1
2
はいいいえ
3
いいえの場合はなぜ:
34
Reimann Andrew
異文化コミュニケーションにおけるユーモアの役割
ライマンアンドリュー
要約
異文化コミュニケーションでは、ユーモアが緊張をほぐしたり、気まずい状況を打開したりするため
の有力な発話行為として用いられる。しかし、
「おかしい」という概念は決して翻訳できるものではなく、
非常に個人的で、文脈や文化に規定される。その結果、様々なジョークや、皮肉・反語をこめたコメン
トなどは文化と深い関係性を持っている可能性がある。ゆえに、気づかれずにたびたび誤解されたり侮
辱的になったりする。本論文では、コミュニケーションに現れるユーモアの例を調べ、EFL の授業に利
用し、文化間の橋渡しを通して相互コミュニケーションの方策として使用できるような様々な方法を説
明する。まず、様々なユーモアの方法・媒体・スタイルの背景知識を述べ、日本・イギリス・カナダ・
アメリカのケーススタディやユーモアの例を紹介する。その後で、日本の大学生の「おかしい」につい
ての認識調査を報告する。この調査は、数々の国際映画とテレビ・メディアの中からユーモアの例を分
析して序列をつける方法で行った。結びとして、個人間及び異文化間コミュニケーションの場において
ユーモアがうまく働くか否かを決定付ける要素を明らかにする。なお，ユーモアの基礎理論には社会的・
心理学・哲学的な影響が見られ、カントなどの不調和理論、プラトンなどの優越理論、フロイトの解放
理論などがある。
（2009 年 11 月 4 日受理）

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