European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2000) 54, 540±545 ß 2000 Macmillan Publishers Ltd All rights reserved 0954±3007/00 $15.00 www.nature.com/ejcn The role of attitudes, intentions and habit in predicting actual consumption of fat containing foods in Italy A Saba1*, M Vassallo1 and A Turrini1 1 Istituto Nazionale di Ricerca per gli Alimenti e la Nutrizione, via Ardeatina 546, 00178 Rome, Italy Objective: To explore which were the most important predictors of the actual consumption of foods containing fat and to test if there were different pro®les of beliefs and attitudes. Design: A total of 1200 households participated in a food consumption survey for 7 days. A questionnaire, containing questions on belief, attitude and intention items based on Ajzen and Fishbein's model, was completed on the ®rst day of the survey. Setting: The study was conducted at the beginning of 1994 in Italy. Subjects: In all, 860 subjects, randomly selected for each household participating in the food consumption survey, were included in this study. Results: A cluster analysis based on average daily intake per capita of nine types of food containing fats was carried out on 860 subjects. The three clusters represented people with different criteria of preference for milk. The relationship between the variables was tested using the forward selection method in multiple regression. The attitude entered sequentially into the model assessing the intention of consuming, after the habit component. Habit was found to be the most the most important predictor of the actual consumption of each type of food. The intention entered into the equation as predictor of the consumption only for butter and olive oil. Habit has been found more important than intention in in¯uencing the consumption of all types of food, whereas the intention did not enter into the model as determinant of the consumption with exception of butter and olive oil in which it remains as a signi®cant predictor. Conclusions: The results of the cluster analysis suggested that subjects of cluster 1 might be more concerned about fat intake. The ®ndings of the regressions showed that the subjective measure of habit entered in the model as the most important predictor of the actual consumption of each type of food. The low prediction of the actual consumption indicated that there could be other important variables in¯uencing the consumption not included in this study. Descriptors: attitudes; habit; actual consumption European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2000) 54, 540±545 Introduction There have been suggestions that cardiovascular diseases may be related to a high fat intake (Keys, 1970; WHO, 1990). Approximately, 37% of the total energy intakes of the Italians is derived from fat (FAO, 1996). Although public health nutrition education efforts have highlighted dietary recommendations to decrease fat intake (INN, 1986, 1996), the consumption patterns have shown little change in Italy (FAO, 1996). One way to change people's food habits is by a change in attitude (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Information on attitudes and beliefs held by people should help to understand the relative importance of beliefs related to different factors in in¯uencing food choice (Shepherd, 1990). The theory of reasoned action (TRA) developed by Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) has been widely used in the food choice area, demonstrating strong relationships between attitudes, *Correspondence: A Saba, Istituto Nazionale di Ricerca per gli Alimenti e la Nutrizione, via Ardeatina 546, 00178 Rome, Italy. E-mail: [email protected] Guarantor: A Saba. Contributors: A Saba was responsible for the design of the study and writing of the manuscript. M Vassallo was responsible for the statistical analysis. A Turrini was responsible for the food consumption database. All authors took part in the discussion of all results. Received 16 November 1999; revised 11 February 2000; accepted 21 February 2000 beliefs and food choice (Tuorila & Pangborn, 1988a; Shepherd, 1990; Shepherd et al, 1991=1992; Towler & Shepherd, 1992). Within the TRA, behaviour is predicted by the conscious decision to perform behaviour, ie the behavioural intention, which in turn is predicted by a combination of people's attitude towards performing the behaviour and their perceptions of the social pressure put upon them to perform that behaviour, ie the subjective norms. Recent empirical works suggested modi®cations of Fishbein and Ajzen's theory of reasoned action, including other components as determinants of food consumption in order to increase the predictive power of the model. Particularly, habit was found to play an important role in the context of food choice when consumption of food is frequently performed (Tuorila & Pangborn, 1988b; Towler & Shepherd, 1991=1992). Habit can be considered as frequently repeated past behaviour (Triandis, 1977) or as behaviour that is in some way automatic or out of the awareness of the subject (Ronis et al, 1989). In the food context, habit measured using `out of habit' type questions, has been shown to be related to consumption of sweet, salty and fatty foods (Tuorila & Pangborn, 1988b). A meÂasure of habit incorporating the idea of actions performed `out of habit' and `out of force of habit' was found to be an important predictor of self-reported behaviour, although it was not as important as intention (Towler & Shepherd, 1991=1992). Attitudes, habit and actual consumption A Saba et al Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) pointed out that the link between intention and behaviour can be reduced by lack of temporal correspondence. However, the Fishbein and Ajzen model has been applied frequently to situations in which the intention measure was asked at the same time of the current behaviour (see the review of Sta¯eu et al, 1991=1992). Also, the behaviour was generally measured as self-reported consumption (Sapp, 1991; Sta¯eu et al, 1991=1992; Towler & Shepherd, 1992; Brug et al, 1994; Raats et al, 1995), whereas there is little research examining the relationships between the behaviour intention and the behaviour measured by observation of actual consumption of food (Shepherd & Farleigh, 1986; Saba & Di Natale, 1999). The objective of the present study was twofold: (a) to explore which were the most important predictors of the actual consumption of foods containing fat within the Fishbein and Ajzen framework including a measure of the habit component; (b) to test if subjects of a large sample had different pro®les of beliefs and attitude towards the consumption of foods containing fats. Since previous research in the food area has found that the subjective norm component was less important than attitude in in¯uencing the intention of consuming (Sapp, 1991; Sta¯eu et al, 1991=1992; Towler & Shepherd, 1991=1992; Thompson et al, 1994), it was not examined in the present study. Methods Subjects One thousand and two hundred households participated in a food consumption survey for 7 days. They were selected at random from the electoral register of medium and largesized towns of Italy at the beginning of the 1994. During the weekly survey all members of the families recruited were asked to record their individual food consumption according to a methodology described below. A sub-sample of 1968 individuals was selected in order to assess the reference diet for an average person. For this purpose, outliers and suspected underreporting subjects have been excluded. The selection was performed by calculating for each individual daily energy requirement for a sedentary life style (SINU, 1996) and daily energy intake (kcal) by the application of the Italian food composition table to the consumption quantities (Carnovale & Marletta, 1997). The comparison of the two estimates provided the group of consumers assuming a habitual diet. The validity of the selection has been tested by calculating the ratio between the daily energy intake and the Basal Metabolic Rate (FAO=WHO=UNU, 1985). Finally, only one subject over 14 y of age, who participated over 4 days of food consumption, was randomly selected for each household in order to remove possible correlated responses between the members of the same family. The ®nal sample was composed of 860 subjects. Measurement of food consumption The methodology adopted was a mixed technique including the weighing method for household food consumption and a record of daily food consumption for each component of the household. The person who took care of feeding weighed the amounts of foodstuffs used for the preparation of the meals as well as food preparation wastes. Individuals were asked to weigh their food portions or give the amount consumed estimated in household measures, such as spoons, glasses, etc. Meals eaten outside the home during the survey period were taken into account as well. When the exact composition of different dishes was not known, the components included were calculated by the aid of standard recipes. Well-trained dietitians during the survey supervised the individuals. The validity of those survey methods has been reviewed by other authors (Pekkarinen, 1970; Bingham, 1987). In the present study the behaviour was measured as mean daily quantity of consumption of the nine foods containing fats and explaining the 80% of energy intake, according to the results of a study on food consumption carried out some years previously in Italy (Saba et al, 1990). The foods included red, white and preserved meat, semi-skimmed and whole fat milk, cheese, olive oil, seed oil and butter. Red meat included beef, veal and pork meat; chicken and turkey meat were included in white meat, whereas preserved meat included ham, salami and other preserved meat. 541 Measurement of intention, beliefs, attitudes and habit The questionnaire, completed on the ®rst day of the survey, contained questions on belief, attitude and intention items based on Ajzen and Fishbein's model (1980) along with two questions on habit. All questions were related to the consumption of each of the types of food. Responses to questions on attitudes and intention of consuming were on seven-point category scales, with the exception of those for habit, which were on ®ve-point category scales. Behavioural intention was measured, for each of the nine foods, by asking subjects if they intended to eat the food during the following days of the week. Responses were on seven-point category scales, ranging from `extremely unlikely' to `extremely likely'. Two questions on attitude, for each of the nine types of food, eg `My eating cheese is (good or bene®cial)', were rated on two sets of responses ranging from `strongly disagree' to `strongly agree'. The behaviour beliefs were elicited from a pilot sample of 30 subjects, following the procedure suggested by Ajzen and Fishbein (1980). For each of the nine types of foods there were salient belief items relating to nutritional aspects, weight concern and functional properties. For whole milk and semi-skimmed milk nine salient beliefs, for the other foods eight beliefs were elicited. The belief items were worded according to the following format: `By drinking whole fat milk I get a food that is high in calcium'. The response categories were on a seven-point scale labeled `strongly agree' and `strongly disagree' at the extremes. Each behaviour belief had a corresponding outcome evaluation, as `Milk that is high in fats is desirable' and the responses were on a seven-point category scale labelled from `strongly disagree' to `strongly agree'. Two questions assessed a subjective measure of habit of consumption for each the eight types of food. The ®rst question, taken from Tuorila and Pangborn (1988a, 1988b), had the wording `I consume butter out of habit'. The responses were rated from `not at all' to `very much'. The second question, taken from Towler and Shepherd (1991=1992), read `How often do you consume butter out of habit?'. The responses were rated from `never consuming' to `consuming once a day'. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition Attitudes, habit and actual consumption A Saba et al 542 Questions concerning socio-demographic information were included in a second questionnaire. Table 1 Data analysis Semi-skimmed milk Whole milk Cheese Preserved meat Red meat White meat Olive oil Seed oil Butter In order to estimate the association between the variables, the attitude and habit responses were summed to give, respectively, a total attitude and habit score (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Cronbach's alpha coef®cients of internal reliability were assessed for attitude and habit components (Cronbach, 1951). Scores on belief responses multiplied by the corresponding outcome evaluations were calculated for each of the nine types of food. The behaviour was measured as mean daily quantity of actual consumption. The association between variables was assessed using Pearson correlation coef®cients. The extended model of Fishbein ± Ajzen was tested by regression analysis, by using the method of forward selection (Brook & Arnold, 1985). The forward selection method adds each predictor variable sequentially only if the increase in the proportion of variation explained by the regression is highest and signi®cant. Cluster analysis was applied in order to group respondents on the basis of the similarity of their consumption of each of the nine types of food. The clustering was performed by applying a K-means procedure (MacQueen, 1967). Means of the components attitudes and beliefs for each of the resulting clustered segments were calculated. Differences between groups of subjects on attitudes and beliefs scores were assessed using the non-parametric analyses of variance (Kruskal ± Wallis). The analyses were carried out using the statistical package SPSS (1991). Results The sample of 860 subjects was composed of 481 females and 379 males. The mean age was 41 y ( + 16.3 y). The educational level was high (40% had a high school education and 17% had a degree). The association between the components of the Fishbein and Ajzen model was calculated (data not shown). All correlations were signi®cant. The correlations were low for each of the nine types of food, with the exception of the correlations between attitude and intention, attitude and habit, habit and intention, with values ranging from 0.4 to 0.8. The component behaviour showed higher correlations with habit than with intention. The internal reliabilities measured by Cronbach's alpha coef®cients were quite high with the exception of the attitude component for preserved meat, which low value of 0.21 indicated a lack of homogeneous components for the attitude item (Table 1). The sum of the beliefs responses multiplied by the corresponding evaluations (Sb6e) for olive and seeds oils showed low values of internal reliabilities (0.35 and 0.43, respectively). There were no signi®cant differences between attitudes and beliefs by sex and age in the total sample (data not shown). In order to explore pro®les of beliefs and attitudes of clusters of subjects with different average food intake, a cluster analysis was performed on the average daily intake per capita of each the nine types of food. A classi®cation with three clusters was considered. The ®rst cluster, cluster 1, had a total of 196 individuals; the second group, cluster European Journal of Clinical Nutrition Cronbach's alpha coef®cient for multi-item components Food product Attitudes S b6e Habit 0.79 0.74 0.54 0.21 0.66 0.76 0.77 0.84 0.54 0.57 0.58 0.61 0.58 0.55 0.44 0.35 0.43 0.67 0.90 0.91 0.77 0.82 0.82 0.74 0.72 0.86 0.84 2, was composed of 476 individuals; and the third group, cluster 3, was composed of 188 subjects. Cluster 1 was composed of 39% males and 61% females; cluster 2 had 44% males and 56% females; cluster 3 was composed of 51% males and 49% females. There were no signi®cant differences between clusters by classes of age and educational level (data not shown). In Figure 1 the pro®les of consumption of each cluster are shown. It is clear that the three clusters represent people with different criteria of preference for milk. The semi-skimmed milk was the most consumed type of milk (206.4 g=per capita=day) for the subjects of cluster 1, whereas the whole milk was the most consumed type of milk for the subjects of cluster 3 (227.7 g=per capita=day). Also, the subjects of cluster 3 showed, on average, higher consumption of red meat, cheese and butter. The attitudes and beliefs that were signi®cantly different among the three clusters are shown in Figure 2. The subjects of cluster 3 had higher scores of attitudes and beliefs items for whole fat milk, with the exception of the belief `Drinking whole milk I gain weight', whereas the subjects of cluster 1 had higher scores of attitude and belief components for semi-skimmed milk. Also, there were more differences between the clusters 1 and 3 on beliefs regarding fat intake for red meat, cheese and butter. The subjects of cluster 1 had higher scores of beliefs `By eating red meat I get a food that is high in fat', and `By eating red meat (or cheese or butter), I get a food containing harmful fats'. The extension of the Fishbein and Ajzen model was tested using the forward selection method in multiple regression. Initially the attitude was regressed on the beliefs multiplied by the evaluations for each of the nine types of food. The intention was regressed on the attitude and habit components for each type of food. Multiple regressions of intention and habit on behaviour were calculated. There were no differences in the magnitude of the relationships between the variables for each of the nine types of food among the three clusters of subjects and the total sample of subjects. Thus, to minimise complexity of presentation, only the results of the multivariate regressions applied on the total sample are shown in Table 2. The attitude entered sequentially into the model, assessing the intention of consuming, after the habit component. Habit has been found more important than intention in in¯uencing the consumption of butter and olive oil, whereas the intention did not enter into the model as determinant of the consumption of the other types of food. Discussion The classi®cation in three clusters represented people with different criteria of preference for milk. The semi-skimmed Attitudes, habit and actual consumption A Saba et al 543 Figure 1 A representation of food pro®le by cluster and total sample of subjects. The lines correspond with the daily average per-capita consumption of each of the nine types of food. The average values are reported between brackets. milk was the most consumed type of milk by the subjects of cluster 1, which was composed of more females than the other two clusters. The whole milk was most consumed by the subjects of cluster 3, which included a higher percentage of males than the other two clusters. It is interesting to note that there were signi®cant differences mainly on beliefs and attitudes towards the consumption of the two types of milk between the clusters 1 and 3. The cluster 3 had higher scores of attitudes and beliefs items for whole milk among the three clusters, whereas the subjects of cluster 1 had higher scores of attitudes and beliefs items for semi-skimmed milk. Additionally, there were signi®cant differences on the scores of the beliefs concerning fat content of red meat, cheese, and butter between clusters 1 and 3. In particular, the subjects of cluster 1 had higher scores of beliefs and showed lower consumption of red meat, butter, and cheese. This result might suggest that the subjects of cluster 1 paid more attention to fat intake. The high correlations between habit and intention for olive and seed oil and butter suggest that habit may predict intention of consuming food better than the attitude component assessed by the technique of Fishbein and Ajzen (1980). This implies that habit may have an important role in changing behaviour. The extension of the model of Fishbein and Ajzen provided limited prediction of actual consumption from the components included. The ®ndings of the regressions showed that the subjective measure of habit, incorporating the idea that the behaviour is not only a frequently repeated behaviour but also is partly out of conscious control, outweighed attitude in the impact of intention on consuming. Even though the attitude component had a minor role, it maintained a signi®cant weight in in¯uencing the intention. Habit entered into the model as the most important predictor of the actual consumption of each type of food. The intention entered into the equation as a predictor of the consumption only for butter and olive oil. This ®nding contrasts with previous studies on the consumption of milk (Saba et al, 1998) in which intention entered into the model as a predictor of consumption, whereas habit did not, on consumption of sweet, salty and fatty foods (Tuorila & Pangborn, 1988b) and on chip consumption (Towler & Shepherd, 1991=1992), in which habit was shown to be signi®cantly related to consumption of foods, although less than intention was. As food choice is a repeated behaviour (Triandis, 1977) and habit is likely to play an important role in the maintenance of a frequently repeated behaviour (Ronis et al, 1989), it is necessary to pay more attention to the conceptualisation of habit in food choice. Also, it is possible that, by adopting a different de®nition, the in¯uence of habit could change its importance in the prediction models (Tuorila & Pangborn, 1988b). However, what the European Journal of Clinical Nutrition Attitudes, habit and actual consumption A Saba et al 544 Figure 2 Means of ratings of beliefs and attitudes for subjects divided into three clusters. Only the beliefs and attitudes signi®cantly different among the three clusters are shown (P < 0.001). The beliefs and attitudes are scored from 7 3 (strongly disagree) to ‡ 3 (strongly agree). Table 2 Results of regressions on behaviour, intention and attitude. The determination coef®cients (r2) for each successive variable are added in, and the ®nal regression coef®cients (b) are showna Dependent variable Behaviour Intention Attitude Behaviour Intention Attitude Behaviour Intention Attitude Variables entered b Semi-skimmed milk Habit 18.289 Habit 0.622 Attitude 0.145 S b6e 0.084 Red meat Habit 8.148 Habit 0.426 Attitude 0.095 S b6e 0.054 Olive Oil Habit 1.034 Intention 1.130 Habit 0.354 Attitude 0.169 S b6e 0.047 r2 Variables entered 0.314 0.650 0.666 0.227 0.085 0.355 0.372 0.139 0.038 0.044 0.349 0.386 0.185 b r2 Whole milk 21.482 0.704 0.072 0.070 White meat Habit 6.676 Habit 0.349 Attitude 0.131 S b6e 0.034 Seed oil Habit 0.909 0.028 Habit Attitude S b6e 0.509 0.522 0.215 Habit Habit Attitude S b6e 0.679 0.088 0.108 0.315 0.650 0.654 0.205 0.064 0.281 0.313 0.068 Variables entered b Cheese Habit 5.109 Habit 0.367 Attitude 0.121 S b6e 0.032 Preserved meat Habit 3.653 Habit 0.516 Attitude 0.104 S b6e 0.062 Butter Habit 0.830 Intention 0.298 Habit 0.714 Attitude 0.129 S b6e 0.071 r2 0.080 0.336 0.363 0.073 0.074 0.413 0.433 0.202 0.108 0.114 0.452 0.476 0.246 a S b6e indicates the sum of the beliefs b responses multiplied by corresponding evaluations e. subjects perceive as habitual behaviour could be the result of the interaction of other factors in¯uencing the food selection (Mela, 1999). Thus, the de®nition of a measure of habit is so complex that it requires further attention in future research. The coef®cients of determination for actual consumption were very low for all the nine types of food, indicating that there could be other important variables in predicting the European Journal of Clinical Nutrition consumption not included in this study. It needs to be borne in mind that human selection of food is derived from the prevailing food, agro-economic and cultural environment, cognitive and biological characteristics of individuals, and the intrinsic and extrinsic attributes of foods themselves (Shepherd, 1990; Mela, 1999). Factors related to the food, such as food appearance, and to external environmental in¯uences, such as cultural and religious factors, act Attitudes, habit and actual consumption A Saba et al through food preferences (Khan, 1981). Physical characteristics of the product linked up with brand name and price may in¯uence the choice of food (Grunert et al, 1996). Also, it is possible that potential biases in the responses on the consumption or intention to consume each of the nine types of food may have in¯uenced the degree of prediction in this study. It can be seen, however, that the magnitude of the determination coef®cient for whole fat and semi-skimmed milk were the highest, indicating that habit could represent an important determinant of the consumption of milk. In conclusion, the Fishbein and Ajzen model was con®rmed as a useful basic framework within which to measure and relate the variable of interests to understand the complexity of causative factors in food consumption. The modi®cations investigated in this paper, such as the inclusion of habit, con®rmed the need to offer a framework for empirical research rather than exploring merely the in¯uences of factors likely to be important. 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