ISSN
0914 − 5206
経営行動科学
第 18 巻 第 3 号
平成17年 7 月
招待論文
Yoshi Tsurumi：Dysfunctional Corporations and Flawed Business Education in America ……… 179
Laurent Lapierre：Managing as Creating ………………………………………………………………… 193
原
著
高 田 博 和
斉 藤 嘉 一
上 田 隆 穂：第二世代携帯電話とインターネットの普及についての研究 ……………………… 199
Fiona Sussan
Yu-Min Chen
Lailani L. Alcantara Growth and Ownership :
………………… 211
：
Yasuo Hoshino
Evidence from Foreign Manufacturing Affiliates in Japan
浅 川 和 宏 製薬企業の研究者レベルにおける研究成果達成の条件：
………………… 223
：
中 村
洋
内外コラボレーションを通じたナレッジ獲得の効果
研究ノート
柏 木
スチュワートシップ理論：性善説に基づく経営理論
………………… 235
仁：
―
― 理論の解説，先行研究の整理，今後の研究の方向性 ――
インタビュー
本誌特別編集委員 Michael Conant カリフォルニア大学バークレー校名誉教授 …………………… 245
編集後記 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 253
Japanese Journal of Administrative Science
Volume18, No.3, 2005, 179-192.
Invited Article
招待論文
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号, 2005, 179−192.
Dysfunctional Corporations and
Flawed Business Education in America
Yoshi Tsurumi＊
(Zicklin School of Business, Baruch College, the City University of New York)
Tel: 646-312-3286. E-mail: [email protected]
Dysfunctional business and political leaders cause the social, political and economic
malaise afflicting America. Their actions have been shaped by flawed business, economic,
and law studies. During the last thirty years, invalid economics theories of market
fundamentalism have dominated business education. As a result, harmful theories of
management and business-government relations have produced dysfunctional corporations
and governments. President George W. Bush epitomizes the worst aspects of America’s
MBA education. Students of business and economics are taught absurd theories and policy
paradigms. They produce the MBA mindset that embraces the robber baron culture of
market and Christian fundamentalism. The remedies are found in the alternative
management theories and leadership training of the Civil Communication Section (CCS)
Seminars offered for Japanese executives after World War II.
Keywords: Dysfunctional MBAs; jobless economic recovery; declining global
competitiveness; invalid efficient market hypothesis; market fundamentalism;
obsolete theory of international trade and investment; adaptive Model J
corporations; business professionals’ noblesse oblige; misunderstood Adam
Smith; raison d’etre of corporations; problems of AACSB.
Jobless Economic Recovery and
Dysfunctional MBAs
To him, the watch dogs of corporations, the Securities
and Exchange Commission and the Federal Trade
Commission, were “bad for business.” He opposed Social
Thirty years ago, George W. Bush was my student at
Security and other New Deal democratic innovations,
Harvard Business School. In my class, he called
which bailed the U.S. out of the Great Depression and
President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal, “socialism.”
produced the Golden Age of the post-World War II era.
As the U.S. president, Bush has been loading the federal
＊Professor of International Business and Recipient of
benches with the neo-conservative jurists who share his
Baruch Presidential Award of Distinguished
political agenda. Allied with Christian fundamentalists,
Lifetime Scholarship (2002). He holds B.A. and M.A.
he is damaging the social safety net, the economic base
(Economics) from Keio University, Tokyo and MBA
of the middle class, the democratic restraints of
and DBA from Harvard University. He has published
capitalism, the independent judiciary, and separation of
in leading journals including Journal of Econometrics,
state and church – the bedrock of American democracy.
Journal of International Business Studies, and
President Bush epitomizes the worst aspects of the
Harvard Business Review. His book, Sogoshosha:
MBA culture – anti-intellectualism, lack of integrity,
Japanese General Trading Firms (1979) aided the
power hungry, and lack of compassion for the
enactment of the U.S. Export Trading Company Act of
unfortunate.
1982. His recent book, Amerika no Yukue, Nihon no
politicians, lawyers, and business executives to willfully
Yukue (Wither America, Wither Japan) (2002) was
misrepresent facts to achieve their selfish goals.
made into NHK’s award winning t.v. documentary of
According to the leaked “Downing Street” memorandum
U.S.-Japan relations (2003).
of July 23, 2002 of Prime Minister Tony Blair, President
−179−
This culture drives MBA-trainded
招待論文
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
Bush was already set to attack Iraq knowingly under the
recovery from November 2001 through August 2003
false precept of “removing weapons of mass destruction”
showed that a 10 percent increase in real GDP expanded
and “Iraq’s direct hands in the 9/11 terrorist attacks.”
manufacturing and service jobs only 0.7 percent and 0.9
To privatize the Social Security – his dream since his
percent respectively.
MBA days – President Bush is claiming falsely that the
Since 2001, over 5 million people have lost their health
Social Security is insolvent and inefficient. In reality, the
benefits while the U.S. lost over 2.7 million quality
Social Security has been the most successful and
manufacturing jobs. The reduction in manufacturing
efficient public insurance to end the poverty of the old
jobs causes compounding losses in suppliers and related
age.
service jobs. Since 2004, America’s real GDP has
Karl Rove is President Bush’s policy adviser who has
annually increased about 4 percent. However, America
modeled the Bush presidency on the McKinley
has created far less than 300,000 jobs monthly which
Presidency (1897-1901) and himself on Mark Hanna, the
barely enough to meet the needs of over 4 million
manufacturer of the McKinley Presidency (Bill Moyers,
unemployed workers who were laid off during the Bush
2003: 10). In fact, both President Bush and Karl Rove are
Administration and also keep up with the population
intent on pushing America back to the McKinley-Gilded
growth.
Age. Under McKinley, Hanna saw to it that Washington
The real income of over 75 percent of Americans --
was ruled by big business. During the McKinley-Gilded
particularly the middle class – has stagnated while their
Age, there was no Securities and Exchange Commission
total tax burden has increased.
to stop the Enron-WorldCom-Tyco types of corporation
unemployment rate is stuck at around 5.2 percent, the
fraud. America had poor public schools and medical
“effective rate” of unemployment is over 10 percent when
care. There was no minimum wage, unemployment
we consider those job holders who work part-time but
insurance or labor standards. Federal and state
want full-time jobs and those who are too discouraged to
governments and courts were hostile to labor unions and
seek jobs. This effective unemployment rate does not
civic groups protesting the injustices of society. The
cover those working poor who have lost their high-wage
natural environment was ravaged by railroads, mining,
full-time manufacturing jobs and are now stuck with
lumbering and newly emerging oil and gas firms. The
minimum-wage service jobs with no medical or other
corrupt crony capitalism and dysfunctional corporations
benefits.
Although the
The winners are Wall Street money gamers and self-
of the Gilded Age finally brought about the Great
dealing corporate executives who were aptly called “the
Depression.
In the 21st century, three vital ingredients of economic
captains of piracy” (Nicholas Kristof, 2005: A18). Since
growth of a nation and a corporation – capital,
2002, the profits of large corporations have risen to
technology, and information – are globally moving
unprecedented level while labor compensation has
through cyber-spaces at the speed of light. The global
declined (Andrew Sum, et.al., 2004: 14). These skewed
competitiveness of the U.S. economy is determined by
divisions of the GDP pie have been accelerated by
continuing growth and its fair distribution of real
President Bush’s generous tax cuts mainly to the
national income, enabling its middle and working
wealthy and large corporations. In 2004, over 80 of
households to keep improving their living standard.
America’s most profitable 200 corporations did not pay
Under the Bush Administration, a jobless economic
any federal and state income tax. At present, private
recovery is hurting the global competitiveness of the U.S.
corporations are devoting about 10 percent of their
economy. America is beset by a widening income gap
profits to compensate their top five executives, up from 6
between the haves and have-nots and rapidly resembles
percent in the mid-1990’s. The New York Times calls
a divisive, undemocratic Latin American country. In the
this “a hijacking of corporate wealth by top managers.”
economic recovery of March 1991 to April 1993, a 10
According to the Wall Street Journal study of March
percent increase in the real GDP expanded
2005, the bonuses received by Chief Executive Officers
manufacturing jobs and service jobs 3 percent and 5.9
(CEOs) of 100 largest U.S. corporations rose over 46
percent respectively. Ten years later, the economic
percent since 2004, to a median of $1.14 million. Both the
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Dysfunctional Corporations and Flawed Business Education in America
total amount and the percentage increases were the
service-providing system better than profit-seeking
highest in five years. To pay themselves so generously,
private corporations. What is wrong with America’s
CEOs shaved costs by laying off workers, reducing
business and economics education that has produced
employee
dysfunctional executives and political leaders?
health
benefits,
and
outsourcing
manufacturing and service jobs abroad. Many CEOs raid
their employees’ pension funds and leave them underfunded or bankrupt although they do not cut their own
Harmful Management and Economics
Theories of Market Fundamentalism
pay.
Under the Reagan Administration (1981-89), America’s
Under the Bush Administration, the average pay for
industrial decline was visible. One manufacturing firm
CEOs of the S&P 500 companies has doubled, passing
after another lost U.S. market shares to Japanese and
the $10 million mark. Meanwhile, their employees lost
European competitors. Some economists and business
their jobs or saw their pay and health benefits reduced.
leaders pointed out how America’s business education
The Wall Street Journal study also showed that CEOs’
was responsible for uncompetitive American firms (Yoshi
annual compensations (bonuses and salaries and perks)
Tsurumi, 1983: D2; John Young, 1985: 61; Michael
had little to do with their performance. In 1980, the
Dertouzos, et.al., 1989: 344). Of late, management
CEOs of Fortune 500 large corporations received, on
scholars have criticized MBA education (Jeffrey Pfeffer,
average, 70 times larger annual compensations than their
2005: 96-100). Sumantra Ghoshal noted (2005: 75-91):
ordinary employees. Under the Bush Administration,
“Combine agency theory with transaction costs
comparable CEOs, many of whom hold Masters of
economics, add in standard versions of game theory and
Business Administration (MBA) from American graduate
negotiation analysis, and the picture of the manager that
schools of business, have come to give themselves 600 to
emerges is one that is now very familiar in practice: the
1,000 times larger annual compensations than their rank-
ruthlessly hard-driving, strictly top-down, command-and-
and-file employees. Meanwhile, the best paid CEOs of
control focused, shareholder-value obsessed, win-at-any-
Japan are given 20 to 40 times more than their ordinary
cost business leader of which Scott Paper’s “Chainsaw”
employees.
Al Dunlap and Tyco’s Dennis Kozlowski are only the most
Furthermore, MBA-trained “captains of piracy” have
extreme examples. This is what Isaiah Berlin implied
produced breath-taking malfeasance in Corporate
when he wrote about absurdities in theory leading to
America, as seen in the examples of Enron CEO Jeff
dehumanization of practice.”
Skilling (Harvard MBA). Other MBAs are behind the
corruption at Tyco, HealthSouth, Haliburton, AIG,
The absurdities in theory that Berlin mentions are
Arthur Andersen, KPMG, Citigroup, Global Crossing,
mainly efficient market theories of financial economics.
and WorldCom, to name a few. Their corruption is
For the last thirty years, they have dominated economic
encouraged by President Bush’s promotion of the robber
studies and business education in America. Since the
baron culture – ignoring the public accountability of
mid-1960’s, neo-conservative have increasingly captured
business and political leaders.
the Republican Party.
America’s business and
Thirty years ago, Bush belonged to a minority of MBA
economics education has become contaminated by the
students who were seriously disconnected from taking
robber baron culture of the pre-Great Depression era.
moral and social responsibility for their actions and
American business and economics studies have
abused their privileged positions. Today, he would fit in
increasingly become the pseudo-sciences of financial
comfortably with an overwhelming majority of business
economists’ mathematical formula manipulation which is
students and teachers whose role models are celebrated
devoid of humanity. The assumption is that individuals
abusers of power. Most business students and teachers
will maximize their own economic self-interest (“homo
refuse to believe that capitalism becomes corrupt in the
economicus”). Corporations maximize short-term profits
absence of civic values and ethical constraints. Even
and stock prices at all costs. Financial economists
against overwhelming evidence to the contrary, they
wrongly believe that capitalism thrives without ethical
continue to believe that no government can manage a
and democratic constraints.
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招待論文
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
Milton Friedman is a guru of such market
conquered not only economics and business studies but
fundamentalism. He answered his critics, saying : “Don’t
also studies of law (Ronald Coase, 1960: 1-44; R.A. Posner,
worry if the assumptions of our theories do not reflect
2003), sociology (J.S. Coleman, 1992: 1-15), political
reality. What matters is that these theories can
science (Anthony Downs, 1957: 215; Mancur Olson, 1965)
accurately predict the outcome” (Milton Friedman, 1953).
and social psychology (J. Thibaut, 1959). America’s
In short, his economics theories should have nothing to
business education and research came to be dominated
do with political, social, and economic realities.
not only by Friedman economics, but also by Friedman
Therefore, the result predicted by his economics theories
law, sociology, social psychology, and political science.
have little meaning for the real world. This is an illusion-
Milton Friedman declared (2002: 133): “Few trends could
based pseudo-science according to the Friedrich von
so thoroughly undermine the very foundation of our free
Hayek (1989: 3-7), Friedman’s noted colleague and a
society as the acceptance by corporate officials of a
recipient of Nobel Prize in Economics Science. No
social responsibility other than to make as much money
wonder that Friedman was treated as a curiosity until
for their stockholders as possible.”
Under the catchall phrase of maximizing stockholders’
the 1970’s.
Until the Civil Rights and anti-Vietnam War
value, Milton Friedman promoted the “survival of the
movements roiled America after the mid-1960’s,
fittest” ideology of crude social Darwinism. Friedman’s
Americans had been enjoying a Golden Age of prosperity
teachings were embraced by the “Me-first” generations
characterized by low inflation, low unemployment, an
of the 1970’s and 1980’s. Notable robber barons of the
rising real income. Americans knew they owed much of
Gilded Age were Andrew Carnegie and John D.
the Golden Age to Roosevelt’s New Deal legacies. They
Rockefeller Jr. They increased their power and wealth
accepted the positive leadership roles of the federal
by practicing survival-of-the-fittest and slash and burn
government in managing America’s economy as well as
capitalism. Andrew Carnegie (1889) justified a “might-is-
in holding private corporations’ abuses of power in check
right” kind of market competition because “it is best for
and promoting democracy. Americans had a positive
the race, because it insures the survival of the fittest.”
view of their government. Wall Street did not drive both
John D. Rockefeller Jr. wrote in 1900 (Peter Singer, 1999:
the economy and politics of the U.S. The John Maynard
70): “The growth of a large business is merely a survival
Keynes School dominated economics and business
of the fittest. This is not an evil tendency in business. It
studies, but did not ignore the social and political context
is merely the working of a law of nature and a law of
of firms and consumers.
God.” Carnegie, Rockefeller and other robber barons
The Oil Crisis of 1973-75 abruptly ended the Golden
Age. American economic and political systems could not
were using federal and state governments as well as the
courts to destroy their competitors and labor unions.
adapt to the sudden four-fold rise in energy costs,
After publishing The Origins of Species (1859),
aggravating cost-push inflationary pressures which had
Charles Darwin warned that we should not use the
already been fueled by the Johnson (Democrat) and Nixon
biological evolution theory as an ethical justification of
(Republican) administrations. Like President Bush today
the right of the strong to trample on society’s weak. In
who does not reveal the truth about the cost of his Iraq
my MBA class, George W. Bush said that the poor
War to the American public, Presidents Johnson and
remained poor because they were lazy. Today, market
Nixon had also borrowed recklessly to pay for the
fundamentalists’ theories have revived social Darwinism
unpopular Vietnam War, resulting in a stagflation
of the McKinley-Gilded Age which has been linked with
economy (Paul Krugman, 1994: 303). Rampant price rises
the undemocratic politics of Christian Fundamentalism
were accompanied by rising unemployment and declining
(Thomas Frank, 2004: 306).
income. Many Americans suddenly lost their positive
To aggrandize their pseudo-science, market
view of government, and were lured into the illusionary
fundamentalists falsely cite the “invisible hand” of the
power of the “efficient market.”
competitive market mechanism postulated by Adam
Milton Friedman and his followers declared, “Keynes
Smith, the laissez-faire economist of the 18th century. In
is dead.” Milton Friedman’s efficient market economics
fact, Adam Smith would scathingly castigate
−182−
Dysfunctional Corporations and Flawed Business Education in America
Bush
simulations of operations research and statistical
Administration, monopolies, corporate executives’
models. Marketing courses employ questionable
excessive self-compensating, unfair taxes and WAL-
mathematical modeling and consumer manipulation.
MART’s predatory pricing and exploitation of labor and
They imitate illusionary trivia of social psychologists.
communities (Anthony Bianco and Wendy Zellern, 2003:
International business is often reduced to rationalizing
100-110).
America’s harmful outsourcing of quality manufacturing
government-business
collusion
of
the
Nowhere in his 900-page book, The Wealth of
and service jobs abroad. It avoids costs-and-benefit
Nations, does Smith even imply that those who
evaluation of multinational firms in their home and
knowingly harm others in pursuit of personal greed also
foreign host countries (Jeffrey Sachs, 2005: 396).
benefit society. He rejects the notion that a corporation
International economists and business scholars
exists to make money without ethical constraints. Smith
uncritically repeat the 19th century theory of free trade
states only once that the business owner “intends only
market equilibrium – comparative advantage theory of
his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases,
international trade. In reality, as in the case of U.S.-
led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was not
China trade and investment, there is no market
part of his intentions.” (The Wealth of Nations, Book IV,
equilibrium point between them. China will persistently
Ch. II). Smith is merely saying that when honest persons
combine her endless supply of low cost labor with inflows
produce and sell honest products and services for the
of capital and technologies from Japan and the U.S.
sake of their own livelihood they contribute to the wealth
Continuing to improve her absolute cost advantage of
of the society, even though this was not their motive.
manufacturing standardized products, China will run up
Smith did not condone cheating or corruption by princes
colossal merchandise trade surpluses with the U.S.
(government officials and politicians) or merchants.
(Raymond Vernon, 1966: 190-207; Paul Samuelson, 2004:
Adam Smith’s famous proposition of the division of
135-146). Furthermore, job and income losses of America
labor is also often twisted by “trasaction cost”
are aggravated by the premature abandonment of
economists and organization theorists to dehumanize
American suppliers and labor by WAL-MART and other
workplaces. Adam Smith clearly warned that “the man
stock price maximizing firms in favor of Chinese
whose whole life is spent in performing a few simple
imports. Since President Bush has debilitated American
operations generally become as stupid and ignorant as it
manufacturing industries, the falling U.S. dollar (or rising
is possible for a human creature to become (The Wealth
Chinese Yuan) will not increase American exports. To
of Nations, Book V. Ch. I). Here Adam Smith warns us
restore trade benefits for America, the federal
of worker alienation in today’s corporations that embrace
government needs to intervene in the impaired market
the transaction cost theory to justify their distrust of
mechanism to discourage WAL-MART from exploiting
employees and customers.
American labor as well as the social dumping of Chinese
Remaking American Business
and Economics Studies
imports.
American MBA schools inculcate their students with
the mistaken idea that corporate management is a
MBA students are taught to deny the positive and
financial game. Many graduate after acquiring or
necessary roles for democratic governments that
solidifying an unhealthy disdain for getting their hands
promote both economic growth and a high employment
dirty in factories and sales offices and upholding their
level. Studies of labor unions have disappeared from
civic responsibilities. Soon after opening Sony’s factory
MBA curricula. In their place, labor economics has
in San Diego, California, in 1973, Akio Morita, the co-
become occupied with trivia of leisure and wage
founder of Sony, told me that American engineers and
tradeoffs. Human resource management has been
managers were extremely reluctant to mingle with their
reduced to using command-and-control techniques. Few
workers on factory floors to help them improve their
MBA programs require students to visit actual factory
operations. Unlike Sony’s Japanese expatriate managers
operations.
Management of factories and data-
and engineers, their American counterparts had no
processing back offices has been reduced to meaningless
experience or inclination for “management by walking
−183−
招待論文
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
about” in the factory and office. This was the most
robber baron has spread. One corporate CEO after
difficult obstacle that Sony had to overcome before the
another has seized on the agency theory to help himself
productivity and quality of Sony’s San Diego plant were
to excessive bonuses and stock options. President
brought up to the same level as its Japanese factories.
Bush’s tax cuts have accelerated such self-interested
A case in point is the so-called “agency theory” (M.
deals by the captains of piracy. To reduce the tendency
Jensen and W. Meckling, 1976: 305-360). It is based on
of corporate executives raiding their own corporate
the illusionary assumptions of perfectly efficient stock
treasury, the Japanese government taxes corporate
and labor markets and stockholders’ control of their
executives’ stock options as “ordinary salaries” and
firms. As early as in 1932, Berle and Means conclusively
requires their corporations to report them as executives’
showed that stockholders do not own or control the
salary expenses. Because of the intense lobbying by
corporations whose shares they buy and sell in the stock
business groups, President Bush and Republican
markets (Adolf Berle and Gardiner Means, 1932). This
Congress are against taxing executives’ stock options
separation of stockholders’ atomistically divided legal
and treating them as their corporate personnel expenses.
ownership from management control has become
Wall Street, the Securities and Exchange Commission,
magnified since the 1930’s. Stock markets have become
and the Federal Trust Commission have all embraced the
the money-game casinos of extremely shortsighted
agency theory and encouraged corporate takeovers of
speculators (Paul Krugman, 2003: 426). Labor cannot
their competitors.
move as freely as assumed by the efficient market
accountability of self-dealing CEOs. In reality, the stock
hypothesis. But the illusion-based agency theory has
market measures, at best, a short-term price of a
come to dominate core MBA courses of corporate
corporation, not its entire value to the society. As
finance, accounting, marketing and management. The
Bernard Shaw once quipped, “Economists know the
agency theory and its theoretical cousin, the capital
price of everything, but the value of nothing.” Agency
asset pricing model (CAPM) of stock price forecasting,
theory has produced Enron-like corporate malfeasance.
have unrealistically reduced complex corporate behavior
The stock prices of firms that are being acquired often
into mechanistic, simple and mathematically elegant
rise speculatively. But the stock prices of acquiring
models. At best, CAPM measures the average risk-and-
firms often decline because speculators know that the
return trends of an industry group of stocks, but cannot
raiders cannot manage the combined firms well. The
tell what investors really want to know – that is unique
stock prices of the merged companies often decline.
risk-return tradeoffs of a specific stock. Both agency
Thomas Kochan (2002) has observed: “The root cause of
theory and CAPM have been empirically shown as
the recent corporate scandals in the U.S. lies in this
irrelevant and even harmful in the real world (Robert
overemphasis American corporations have been forced
Kuttner, 1996: 410).
to give in recent years to maximizing shareholder value
The agency theory treats professional managers of
private corporations merely as unethical agents who are
They do not enforce public
without regard for the effects of their actions on other
stakeholders.”
hired by the shareholders. Wall Street loves the agency
Transaction cost economics (O.E. Williamson, 1975) is
theory because it encourages corporations to attempt
another invalid and harmful theory. It has dominated
hostile takeovers of other corporations. The agency
organization and human behavior courses and marketing
theory states that agents cannot be trusted to maximize
classes. This absurd theory drives managers to monitor
shareholder value and that corporate raiders’ hostile
and control, instead of empowering, their subordinates
takeovers of the “undervalued” firms increase the stock
to prevent “opportunistic behavior” ( namely, innovative
prices (‘fair market values”) of the combined firms. The
initiative and flexible adaptation to changing market
agency theory advocates that professional managers’
conditions). Agency theory and transportation cost
self-interests and incentives must be aligned with those
paradigms treat both employees and managers as
of the shareholders by making stock options and bonuses
disposable costs. Form the 1980’s through the 1990’s,
a significant portion of their compensations.
America’s management fad was “restructuring” and
Since the 1980’s, the “greed-is-beautiful” culture of the
“downsizing.” To cut costs and pad their “earnings per
−184−
Dysfunctional Corporations and Flawed Business Education in America
share,” one company after another slashed and burned
values of these alternative firms have outperformed
(“downsized”) their employees. “Chain Saw” Al Dunlap
those of Porter-Agency Theory firms. Over the last
and “Neutron Jack” Welch fired their employees at the
thirty years, invalid precepts and dysfunctional
first sign of flat sales. But downsizing reduced profits,
paradigms of efficient market schools have increasingly
lost customers and suppliers and demoralized the
influenced government regulations and management of
remaining employees. The firms lost valuable human
economy, business and consumers as well as U.S. court
resources vital for maintaining customers and suppliers
decisions. An effective antidote to the efficient market
(The Wall Street Journal, “Call It Dumbsizing,” May 14,
hypothesis is the general theory of the second best
1996).
(Kelvin Lancaster and Richard Lipsey, 1956: 11-32).
Michael Porter’s illusionary theory of “five forces
When there are multiple and systemic distortions in the
framework” has invaded management strategy and
price and supply discipline of a given market, the
marketing courses (Michael Porter, 1980). Porter argues
piecemeal removal of distortions to bring the market
that companies must compete not only with their
closer to a pure market will not improve or will worsen
competitors but also with their suppliers, customers,
the overall outcome. This dictum refutes market
employees, and regulators. In reality, internally-divided
fundamentalist economists and political scientists as well
American firms are being soundly beaten in the U.S.
as “law and market” jurists. They substitute “market
market and abroad by their Japanese and European
incentive vouchers” or “privatization” for government
competitors that have rejected Porter theory and built
regulations of clean water and air quality, public safety,
internally cooperative organizations and extended
and public education, to cause predictably disastrous
alliances with their suppliers and customers.
outcomes.
Aggravated by the myth of rugged individualism, the
MBA students must be taught that management is not
internal competition worsens turf wars and paralyzes
a pseudo-science, but an art supported by sciences and
America’s politicized homeland security bureaucracy
humanities. A truly effective and respected leadership is
(James Suroweicki, 2004: 41).
characterized by high purpose, honesty, compassion
Citing uncritically, political scientists and social
(noblesse oblige), honor, sincerity, self-sacrifice, and
psychologists of market fundamentalism, business policy
moral courage. Multinational firms blessed with true
and marketing courses parrot the futility of government
leadership, not stock price and profit manipulator,
interventions in the market mechanism.
They
continue to outperform their profit and stock price
misunderstand the social choice theory of Kenneth
maximizing competitors (Yoshi Tsurumi and Hiroki
Arrow, a Nobel Prize winner (Kenneth Arrow, 1951). I
Tsurumi, 1985: 29-35).
studied economics with Kenneth Arrow. He warned us
Obsessed with invalid theories of management,
not to twist his mathematical proof of the “impossibility
General Motors, Ford, and Daimler-Chrysler have
theorem” into the imagined futility of civic and political
continued to decline even in their home market.
efforts at social betterment,” or into “manipulating
Meanwhile, Toyota and Honda have expanded their
consumer behavior.” Kenneth Arrow merely showed
market shares and profits in America. For some years,
algebraically that the outcome of the group choice is
Toyota’s annual profits have been larger than the profits
indeterminate when there exists a circular win-lose
of Detroit Big Three combined. Ironically, General
situation like the kids’ game of rock-paper-scissors
Motors and other profit and stock price maximizers are
among different groups of people.
beaten by Toyota and other long-term “value-added
Alternative and Relevant Theories of
Management and Strategies of Private
Corporations
maximizers” from Japan. Toyota’s share value has
persistently outperformed General Motors’ share value.
Over the years, American car companies have tried to
teach buyers to pay rapt attention to yearly cosmetic
There are relevant theories and paradigms based on
changes in sheet metal (car style and color) while
alternative behavioral models of firms and true
ignoring the fundamental advances in product reliability
leadership of ethical business professionals. The share
and the underlying platform of the engine, drive train,
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経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
and chassis (Yoshi Tsurumi, 1980: 87-88; Hiroki Tsurumi
reinforces the timely execution of ten variables of Ps: (1)
and Yoshi Tsurumi, 1983: 193-210; Maryann Kelly, 1989:
(market) probing, (2) product quality, (3) pricing, (4)
283; James Moore, 1996: 297). American consumers have
promotion, (5) just-in-time placement/procurement
rebelled against the Big Three.
(logistics), (6) people with pride (human resource-based
American automakers remain blind to the
technological and management innovations refined by
Toyota and other Japanese firms. These technological
and marketing advances have been made possible by
Japanese manufacturing firms’ strategies based on
marketing), (7) productivity, (8) public relations, (9)
plaintiff (legal), and (10) politics.
The Two Types of Corporation:
Model J vs. Model A.
human resource-based management. Their famed “just-
There are two distinctly different types of
in-time” and “total quality control” systems are products
corporations (Douglas McGregor, 1960; Yoshi Tsurumi,
of their strategies and structures. For Toyota, Honda,
1976: 333). Model A firms are represented by General
Sony and other world-class manufacturing and trading
Motors, Enron, General Electric and many American
firms of Japan, their strategic goals are not to maximize
firms. Model J firms are epitomized by Toyota, Sony,
their stock prices, but to become the world’s most
Honda, Fujifilm and other Japanese world class firms.
efficient provider of whatever products and services they
Model A corporations are more likely to be managed by
offer. They bring their corporate goals in line with the
dysfunctional executives and become bureaucratic and
national interest of their home and foreign host
dysfunctional for the society. Model J corporations are
countries. To achieve their goals, they refuse to be
more likely to be managed by executives with high
wagged by the speculative stock trader.
purposes and ethical leadership whose primary mission
They continue to invest in technological innovations,
is other than making money.
market development, human resources, and in
The comparison of General Motors and Toyota shows
international trade and investment. Once they become
that American executives’ obsession with short-term
the world leader, profit follows and enables them to
profits weaken their firms’ global competitiveness.
further improve their human resource and technology
When a recession befalls GM and other American firms,
capital. Their CEOs have learned that their strategic
their primary goal is to protect their cherished profit
goals help the economy of their home and foreign host
number by cutting their employees, research and
countries to grow. Thriving economies of their home
development (R&D), and market development. During
and foreign host countries in turn enable them to
the deep recession of 1974-76 triggered by the Oil Crisis,
improve their global competitiveness (Akio Morita
American semiconductor companies protected their
(Sony), 1986: 309; Robert Shook (Honda), 1988: 238;
budgeted profits by reducing planned investment in
Steven Spear (Toyota), 2004: 78-86).
employee training, R&D, production facilities and market
World class manufacturing firms of Japan create and
development. When the recession was over, they
expand their values by market specialization and
suddenly noticed that their Japanese competitors had
differentiation. Their competitive edge is their ability to
used the downturn to improve their manufacturing,
link worldwide product development, manufacturing, and
technological and marketing capabilities and were
marketing. Guided by their shared strategic goals,
positioned to overtake them.
management and employees concentrate on creating and
From 1979 to 1981, one American manufacturing
riding with customers’ changing needs. For this
company after another dismissed their employees and
purpose, they build quick-response and mutually
cut off their suppliers to maintain short-term financial
supportive relationships with suppliers, distributors and
health. Misery spread at compounding rates throughout
customers.
themselves from
the economy. On the other hand, their Japanese
competitors, they coordinate a whole cycle of activities
competitors absorbed the economic shocks, not by
from product development to manufacturing, sales, post-
cutting employment and suppliers, but by reducing
sale customer services and then back to product
dividends, executives’ compensation and perks,
development. Their holistic and relationship marketing
managers’ salaries, and eventually an across-the-board
To differentiate
−186−
Dysfunctional Corporations and Flawed Business Education in America
cut in the salaries of the rank-and-file. When Japanese
of Model A organizations. Their collusion with the ruling
firms need to downsize permanently, they first freeze
political party and the central bureaucracy produced
their new hiring and then downsize through a natural
Japan’s crony capitalism. There are also Model J firms
attrition of employees. When they need a further
among American and European firms such as Gore
downsizing, they buy out managers and employees with a
Associates, a multimillion dollar high-tech manufacturer
sizable lump-sum severance pay and help outplace them.
in Newark, Delaware (Malcom Gladwell, 2000: 301),
At the same time, recessions are used to retrain surplus
Malden Mills, a manufacturer of fleece fabrics in
scientists, engineers, employees, managers, and
Lawrence, Massachusetts (The New York Times
suppliers so that they will be prepared to produce new
Magazine, 1996) and Scania AB, a Swedish multinational
products and distribute them more efficiently once their
manufacturer of heavy trucks, buses, and diesel engines
markets bounce back. This forward thinking policy of a
(H. Thomas Johnson and Anders Broms, 2000: 225).
Honda factory in America was featured prominently in
Starbucks has grown multinational and globally
an article in the New York Times (“Back to School for
competitive because its founder and CEO, Howard
Honda Workers,” March 29, 1993).
Schultz, built his organization and culture into a Model J
Repeatedly in recent years, American executives have
firm (Howard Schultz, 1997: 351). Michelin of France and
stood by and watched sheepishly as their Japanese
the South West Airline of America are Model J firms.
competitors took America’s failing plants and
Model J organizations are not bound by Japanese culture
unproductive and uncooperative workers and turned
and are internationally transferable.
In these
Model A firms are the poster children of Porter and
increasingly common examples of what I call the
other market fundamentalists’ “intrapreneurship” and
“Japanese Paradox,” all the excuses American executives
“Darwinian revolution” theories of management. Model
use to explain their failures – such as the overvalued
A firms are unadaptive and are driven by manufactured
dollar, high labor costs, restrictive union work rules,
internal competition that pits one division or group
government regulations – are irrelevant. The Japanese
against the others and plays one manager against the
Paradox appeared first during the 1970’s as American
other. As shown by Enron and General Electric, they are
color television manufacturers like Zenith, RCA, General
all short-term bottom-line (accounting profits)
Electric, and Motorola abandoned their manufacturing
maximizers driven by Wall Street. To drive up stock
operations in the U.S. and ceded their markets to Sony
prices, all the managers’ financial contributions to their
and other Japanese manufacturers (Hiroki Tsurumi and
firm’s earnings per share were monthly ranked and the
Yoshi Tsurumi, 1980: 583-597).
bottom ten percent performers are yanked out of the
them around into rousing successes.
Early in the 1990’s, Kodak saw its market dominance
firm. Fears of job loss, mistakes, initiatives and bosses
outside Japan increasingly eroded by Japan’s Fujifilm.
paralyze the corporation. Fears prevent managers from
Kodak charged that Fujifilm was engaged in unfair
sharing their information. CEOs wink at their managers
marketing practices and dumping with the help of the
debasing their product and service quality and violating
Japanese government. In 1997, the World Trade
insider-trading, anti-monopoly, environment and labor
Organization unanimously ruled that Fujifilm was not
protection.
engaged in any unfair marketing practices and that nor
Model J firms are externally competitive. But their
was it receiving any assistance from the Japanese
managers and employees internally cooperate with one
government. Instead, Fujifilm’s business strategy and
another to accomplish their shared overall strategic
corporate structure were more adaptive to the
goals, to share management and technological
dynamically-changing market and technological
information, to learn from one another and to informally
environment worldwide (Claudia Deutsch, 1997: D10;
coordinate their efforts. Typically, CEOs keep track of
Yoshi Tsurumi and Hiroki Tsurumi, 1999: 813-830).
balanced performance measurements of financial goals,
Not all Japanese firms are Model J types. After
collapsing in 1992, the paralysis of Japanese banks for
R&D goals and goals of human resource development
(Robert Kaplan and David Norton, 1991: 71-79).
more than a decade was due to the bureaucratic inertia
−187−
Model J organizations and culture encourage an
招待論文
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
adaptive, cooperative, innovative and experimental
networks inside and outside the firm. Michael Porter
behavior and mindset. Model J firms prefer training and
and others of the efficient market school do not
promoting their managers from within rather than
comprehend how organic, innovative, and flexible Model
bringing them in from outside. Managers and employees
J corporations function through cooperative human
are encouraged to participate in civic activities of their
(information) links for R&D, manufacturing, supply,
own choice. Model J often provides profit-sharing plans
support logistics, and market probing relationships.
for their rank-and-file employees as well. This model
practices an expansive boundary of their corporation and
nurtures an ever-expanding and mutually supportive
The Origins of Japanese Model J Firms
− They Were “Made in America.”
“eco-system” of customers, distributors, suppliers, and
Until Japan’s defeat in World War II (August 1945),
outside support groups. From 1960 to 1975, Honda’s
Japanese corporations were dominated by Model A types
success in America was built on its holistic execution of
and “Chain Saw Al” and “Enron Skilling” CEOs. At home
marketing variables of ten Ps to create and hold new
and abroad, the image of “things made in Japan” meant
markets for lightweight motor cycles through a timely
shoddy products. Many CEOs agreed with Shitago
expansion of its eco-systems (Clayton Christensen and
Noguchi, the founder of Nippon Nitrogen (established in
Michael Raynor, 2003: 304). Later, Intel and Microsoft
1908), who told his managers to treat the workers as
emulated Honda’s strategy.
“cows and horses.” In the days of Japan’s robber baron
Three vital ingredients of a growing corporation and
capitalism, many CEOs mercilessly exploited their
national economy are capital, technology, and
workers (E. Patricia Tsurumi, 1990: 213). All the firms
information. They can only be utilized by human beings
maintained strict social and economic status
whom we call ‘brain or knowledge workers.” Model J
differentiations between “salaried white collar” and “daily
firms treat even their rank-and-file employees as brain
waged blue collar” employees. However, throughout the
workers and involve them in improving their
1950’s and the 1960’s, one Japanese firm after another
corporation’s overall performance.
consciously restructured their prewar Model A
In addition to financial capital, the other two
organization and culture to the Model J. One firm after
ingredients – technology and information, are also
another gave every employee a “salaried” status and
capital. They can only be accumulated and improved by
bonuses and benefit. Just as Akio Morita of Sony realized,
human resources. The internet economy thrives on the
the human resource-based and cooperative organization
law of ever-increasing returns in contrast to the law of
is necessary for rapid growth at home and abroad. This
diminishing returns of the old economy.
The
is why Model J firms are found in Japan and elsewhere
incremental cost of information and technology diffusion
among companies striving toward international
declines limitlessly to zero while incremental benefits of
competition, technological innovation and growth.
such diffusion increase exponentially. These facts make
Japanese executives first learned the quality- and
Model J firm more globally competitive than Model A
people-first management from manufacturing, marketing
companies. Model J firms can utilize better technology
logistics, and management innovations of America’s
and information capital. Vitally important technology
“arsenal of democracy” of World War II era. Management
and information capital are readily shared and improved
and employees were united in their goals of winning the
throughout Model J’s stakeholders including the external
war. They mass-produced quality products and deliver
alliance members.
Model J firms are learning
them promptly to where they were needed. CEOs were
organizations that promote dynamic economies of scale
not obsessed with their compensation packages and stock
of learning by doing among their eco-system members.
prices. The Roosevelt Administration prevented private
The dumbsizing CEOs temporarily save financial
companies from war profiteering which Haliburton and
capital and corporate buildings and equipment, but they
the Carlyle Group – well connected with President Bush –
destroy vital technology and information capital. They
are exploiting in the Iraq War.
have been stored, refined, and utilized by their highly-
The two hands-on manufacturing engineers of the
motivated people and by their human relationship
“arsenal of democracy,” Homer Sarasohn and Charles
−188−
Dysfunctional Corporations and Flawed Business Education in America
Protzman, were invited to Japan in the fall of 1945. Their
of what he would like to see in his followers. The goals of
mission was to revive and restructure Japan’s telephone,
contributing to the national interest as well as to
telecommunications, and broadcast equipment
democracy are taught as necessary leadership qualities.
manufacturing sectors. Discovering the sorry state of
A leader could gain his workers’ support simply by being
Japan’s telecommunications industry, which was plagued
loyal to them (the opposite of “captains of piracy”).
by a lack of quality consciousness, low employee morale,
Sarasohn stressed the importance of consultation
and incompetent management, Sarasohn helped
between management and employees. Building employee
Japanese manufacturers restart their operations. When
morale and making effective policies require a constant
the start-up problems were brought under control,
process of education. He also taught the social
Sarasohn teamed up with Protzman in 1948 to design and
responsibility of a firm and its executives. Sarasohn
teach intensive management training seminars, the Civil
recalled (Pacfic Basin Quarterly, 1990: 1-5):
Communication Section (CCS) Management Seminar.
“At the outset of the seminar, I asked the participants
From 1949 to 1950, Sarasohn and Protzman gave
what the raison d’etre of their firm was. I asked them,
series of intensive eight-week courses for top executives,
“What goals are you managing your firm for? Nobody
engineers, and academics on management and product
was able to answer this question. I told them that profits
quality control. They wrote a 600-page text book for
or sales could not possibly be their raison d’ etre or their
their seminar. After the two American engineer-
management philosophy. Chasing greedily profits is a
teachers left Japan, CCS seminar graduates took turns to
low level goal and does not permit them to stay with a
conducting seminars for others for the next 25 years
changing world. Such greed would merely invite the
until 1974. By 1974, over 5,200 had attended the
general public’s wrath.”
seminars and the graduates taught the CCS lessons to
their firms and in their schools.
Sarasohn’s views of management leadership and the
Meanwhile, CCS seminar attendants were eagerly
raison d’etre of private corporations struck a responsive
embracing many institutional reforms of the postwar
chord in his Japanese students, who were reminded of
Japan, ranging from the dissolution of the prewar
Japanese “Bushido” – noblesse oblige and the ethical
Zaibatsu combines, and the general purge of wartime
codes of conduct of feudal samurai (warriors) – that
business executives and politicians, to the legalization of
guided business and government leaders of the Meiji Era,
labor union movement. The dissolution of Zaibatsu
1868-1911. They propelled Japan from a weak, feudal
destroyed the centralized control of each Zaibatsu
country to a fast-rising industrial, and modern power in
headquarters over its membership firms. The general
Asia.
purge swept away those executives who had come from
the legal, financial, and government relations fields. For
each corporation, Sarasohn made it sure that people well
The Tasks of Business School Deans
and Senior Professors
versed in manufacturing operations, technologies, and
Business schools need to produce ethical and
sales would fill CEO and other top management ranks.
competent managers for private and not-for-profit
This was the beginning of the postwar “Japanese
corporations just as medical schools are expected to
management system” characterized by hands-on
produce ethical and competent clinical physicians.
executives, team works, and management-employee joint
Competent clinical doctors use knowledge of basic
moral ownership of their corporation. Management
medical science, chemistry, physics, psychology, and
would not shift the blame for management mistakes to
pharmacology. But, they do not pretend to engage in the
summary layoffs of rank-and-filers.
imitative, irrelevant trivia of physical and social
Sarasohn concentrated on Model J types of human
sciences.
resource management and organization building. He
The American Association of Colleges and Schools of
defined leadership as an act of self-sacrifice and the
Business (AACSB) accredits MBA granting schools.
ability to secure the faith and respect of his workers. He
Unfortunately, the AACSB shares the responsibility for
taught that a leader must himself be the finest example
flawed business education. It recommends that business
−189−
招待論文
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
schools should offer MBA students courses in business
Carnegie, Andrew. 1889. “Wealth,” North American
Review, Vol. 391, 654–657.
ethics, but these courses are mainly about the corporate
governance and corporate compliance with laws. Few
Christensen, Clayton and Raynor, Michael. 2003. The
MBA programs confront their students with the
Innovative Solution, Boston, MA: Harvard Business
School.
ideological biases and damages caused by market
Coase, Ronald. 1960. “The Problem of Social Cost,”
fundamentalists’ theories and management practices.
Journal of Law and Economics, No. 3 (October), 1-
Management skill and art must be anchored in
44.
managers’ noblesse oblige. Such leadership should be
refined by MBA students’ sense of history and global
Coleman, J.S. 1992. “The Rational Reconstruction of
relations of their country and the world, and above all a
Society,” American Sociological Review, No.58, 115.
keen sense of democratic and social justice. Business
school need to reduce the damage from misguided
Deutsch, Claudia. 1997. “Fuji Builds a Brand as Rival
financial economics, invalid management, marketing and
Fumes About Price,” The New York Times, December
11, D 1.
international trade theories and the robber baron culture.
Until 30 years ago, business schools recruited and
Dertouzos, Michael, Lester, Richard and Solow, Robert.
rewarded their faculty members based upon balanced
1989. Made in America: Regaining the Productive
Edge, New York: Harper Perennial.
records for (1) scholarship of research, (2) scholarship of
integration, (3) scholarship of application, and (4)
Downs, Anthony. 1957. An Economic Theory of
Democracy, New York: Harper and Brothers.
scholarship of pedagogy (teaching) (Ernes Boyer, 1990).
Today, the AACSB and business schools are rewarding
Frank, Thomas. 2004. What’s the Matter with KANSAS?
New York: Metropolitan.
only those faculty members who know irrelevant
minutiae of pseudo-scientific research. By their
Friedman, Milton. 1953. Essays in Positive Economics,
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
standard of research, Adam Smith would not be hired or
tenured, nor would Peter Drucker. Their seminal works
Friedman, Milton. 2002. Capitalism and Freedom (40th
would be rejected as “not quantitative enough.”
Anniversary Ed.), Chicago: University of Chicago
To stop producing dysfunctional MBAs, business
Press.
schools need to restore the true leadership training that
Ghoshal, Sumantra. 2005. “Bad Management Theories Are
can only be accomplished by diverse and dedicated
Destroying Good Management Practices,” Academy
educators. They could learn from the leadership and
of Management Learning and Education, Vol. 14,
hands-on management training of Japanese executives
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Gladwell, Malcom. 2000. The Tipping Point, New York:
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Invited Article
招待論文
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号, 2005, 193−198.
Managing as Creating
Laurent Lapierre
(Pierre-Péladeau Chair of Leadership, HEC Montréal)
http://www.hec.ca/pages/laurent.lapierre/
Over the past twenty years, the principles and vocabulary of management have infiltrated
nearly every sphere of human activity. These days, we don’t just manage our businesses, but
also our lives, our relationships and even our emotions! Management has become so
pervasive that many people assimilate all the latest theories and models without even
realizing it. The slogans abound, vying with one another to proclaim their “truth,” whether it
be that the customer is king, that profit is the only goal possible, that firms must grow or
die, that you have to compete globally, or that you can’t improve what you can’t measure.
Managers, in particular, are bombarded on a daily basis with “messages” that inevitably end
up shaping their approach and dictating their actions. Even without having taken the
relevant training, they adopt a pre-packaged management practice that is modelled after or
dictated by the latest flavour of the month.
This document represents a collective position and has been signed by people from
diverse horizons, including executives, deans, professors, researchers, artists and students.
Our focus is on the management in general of organizations of any kind, on the leadership of
people and on the training of managers. Our intended audience includes all those who live
within organizations, and, in particular, that new breed of expert that has emerged over the
past fifty years or so.
Keywords: management; leadership; research; management training; creativity; judgement.
a just a few examples of such concepts: competitiveness,
The Omnipresence of Management
reengineering, modernization, optimization, just-in-time,
There is certainly no shortage of studies and
free trade, outsourcing, globalization, quality of working
theorizing in the management field. Our daily language
life, total quality, streamlining, ISO compliance,
abounds with terms that have their origin in
excellence, strategy, leadership, value chain, value
management. The public and parapublic sectors, armies,
added, performance, accountability, public-private
recreational organizations, the arts, and, of course,
partnerships, learning organization, corporate culture,
businesses are all scrutinized through the lens of
competency profiles, coaching, emotional intelligence,
management principles, theories and models. In the
mentoring, governance, convergence, etc. All of these
space of mere decades, management has become a new
notions follow on the heels of one another or vie with
universal reference, so much so, in fact, that all areas of
each other for dominance among the ranks of the new
human activity are today measured against its yardstick.
management credos that, though often poorly
We are encouraged to regard our co-workers, our bosses
documented or developed, are swallowed whole by
and even our family members as so many “customers” or
experts of all stripes.
“partners” whose needs must be met. Any pretext is good
These slogans, with their generalizing and
to demonstrate our leadership, to display our competitive
universalizing tendencies, are often seductive, but the
spirit or entrepreneurial skills.
reality is that they quickly become obsolete, only to be
The concepts follow in quick succession, taking on the
replaced by others, in the service of an industry that is
semblance of slogans that are rapidly appropriated and
dependent on novelty, change and progress. This is
applied to any and all situations. The list is long, but here
particularly truth in the field of leadership, which is all
−193−
招待論文
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
is, and must be, “contextualized.” It rarely transfers
the rage these days.
While the credos themselves have a short shelf life, the
beliefs that engender them tend to die hard. Truth be
neatly from one reality to another, or simply from one
organization to another.
told, the trends one finds in management are merely a
Consequently, there can be no such thing as a single
reflection of a much broader social phenomenon. New
management approach, just as there is no such thing as a
management orthodoxies do not emerge by chance. They
perfect organizational or leadership model. Paraphrasing
attract attention and they may have some substance, but
Borduas, our message to the new management experts
in their failure to recognize unique or special situations
found in many of today’s business schools could be: To
that call for genuinely new or innovative solutions, they
the devil with management theories! This refusal
can also have the effect of suppressing opportunities for
should apply as much to normative theories as to
expression, creativity and action.
scholarly theories developed based on a research
The Urgent Need for a New Refus global
At one time, religion dominated Quebec society with
near absolute authority. Many intellectuals experienced
approach that, while technically rigorous, is unable to
fully account for the complexity and the organic nature
of management, and even less so the mysteries of human
behaviour and of organizational reality itself.
it as an intrusive force and a purveyor of beliefs,
Even when useful, models, methods and theories tend
interdictions, taboos and fears that acted as powerful
to be based on a reductionist view of reality. In practice,
barriers to free thought, liberty and creation. The
everyone, including managers, gathers information and
authority of the Church created powerful religious elites
constructs their own understanding of the context, their
that maintained close ties with the civil elites in Quebec
own theories, their own policies, whether implicit or
society. In 1948, a group of Quebec artists signed the
explicit, based on their own situation – a situation they
Refus global [Global Refusal], a manifesto drafted by the
must first comprehend in order to choose the best course
painter Paul-Émile Borduas that heralded the Quiet
of action. And they do so while continually seeking
Revolution that was to follow in the sixties. The
inspiration in the ideas of others.
manifesto launched a call for freedom from Catholicism,
Management is an object that must be studied as
orthodoxy, fear and religious dictates. Clearly, these
rigorously as possible, while taking care to choose the
were no minor reforms!
type of “science” that is best adapted to the complexity of
Management today stands at a point where there is a
need for a new “refusal” – one that could be formulated
as a refusal of theories, models and fads. This refusal is
this reality.
Management Training
necessary in order to resist preconceived notions,
The profession of manager is one of the only
dogmas and trends and to break free from the new
professions that one can teach without ever having
catechisms and other doctrines that purport to possess
actually practised it oneself. What would surgeons,
the latest truth about action and leadership. We must
dentists, nurses, lawyers, singers or writers think if
once again throw off the shackles and claim a larger
somebody tried to come in and teach them their
space for originality and creativity.
profession without having ever performed surgery,
There is no doubt that managing is a complex and
extracted a tooth, cared for the sick, pleaded before a
difficult task. It is not surprising, therefore, that many
judge, sang on stage or published, as the case may be?
practitioners are seduced by models that appear to
What value would they see in such a speaker coming to
produce results as if by magic. Nor is it surprising that
talk to them about their profession or purporting to teach
consultants and other such peddlers of magic recipes see
it to them? And yet this is precisely the type of situation
therein an endless source of business opportunities.
that occurs regularly in management schools.
Contrary to mathematics or the “hard” sciences, in
Broaching the subject of management training
management there is no scientific knowledge that can be
inevitably raises the fundamental question: What is
described as universal, nor is there a generalized
management? What place has the idea itself of
knowledge that is applicable in all situations. Knowledge
“professional management” come to occupy in our
−194−
Managing as Creating
consideration for the differences that exist between
situations and people.
society over the past few decades? In all fields of art and
human activity, creation, taken in its broadest sense, is
Managing as you are means accepting that you do
not know everything. It means seeking to surround
yourself with competent people in areas where you
are less proficient and with qualified collaborators
whose suggestions and critical opinions you seek out
and welcome.
inseparable from action. It is in action that a personal
vision and understanding of reality are expressed. And,
often, it is only afterwards, not before, that such
creations are enriched by the men and women who study
them and devote themselves to teaching them.
Management schools have established new fields of
Managing as you are means accepting to be yourself
in front of others, knowing that some people may not
like you and may even be aggressive toward you, and
not backing down despite that.
academic research and teaching. They have hired
researchers trained in scientific methods and earned
greater credibility in academic circles. But at what
price? It is the object itself of their research that eludes
Managing as you are means claiming the right to
think differently and recognizing your duty to
consult and listen to others, to acknowledge your
mistakes and learn from them, and to start over
again and persevere.
them, that has been rendered invisible and that we can
no longer even grasp, for the simple fact that there are
no easy answers, much less universal ones.
The challenge of management schools is to impart
knowledge to (future) managers that will help guide their
Managing as you are means managing human beings
who, like you, are imperfect.
actions when the time comes to act, to teach them to
take action and to make them aware of the complexities
Managing as you are also means managing along
with other people. Management is an eminently
social profession. The truer the manager remains to
himself, the better he knows himself, and the more
he will accept to see others remain true to
themselves while focusing on the task to be
accomplished or service to be provided.
of management, while reconciling knowledge, intentions
and actions.
Managing as You Are
Regardless of the field in which it is practised,
management is an activity specific to human beings, who
bring to it their knowledge as well as their lack of
Managing as you are means being autonomous and
keeping an open mind vis-à-vis your own principles
and beliefs as well as those of others; it means
finding your own way of thinking, your uniqueness
as a leader, and, ultimately, it means managing like
nobody else.
information, their qualities as well as their faults, their
talents as well as their shortcomings, their strengths as
well as their weaknesses, their skills as well as their
ineptitudes. Talent is invariably a combination of all
these characteristics. But these faults, shortcomings,
weaknesses and ineptitudes should not be evoked
Thus, in order to become true creators and opinion
complacently or used as an excuse for our failures, as is
leaders, managers must cast aside models that do not
so often the case. We learn each day to deal with these
correspond to their reality and dare to place their trust
less desirable, yet very real aspects of ourselves. We
in their imagination, their intelligence and their wisdom.
strive to keep them in check so as not to fall victim to
them, and, sometimes, we even manage to turn them to
A Method
our advantage in order to succeed.
It is a serious error – one often repeated in the “social
Managing as you are first means getting to know
yourself better. It means developing a fair and
realistic perception of yourself and others.
sciences” – to want to apply the model of the hard
Managing as you are means saying goodbye to the
image of the ideal leader that you think you should
be or that you would like to be; it also means saying
thinking entity that changes and acts. Like the
goodbye to models and formulas that you would like
to be able to apply anywhere, at any time, without
subjectivity and intersubjectivity are an integral part of
sciences to the study and understanding of human
action. The human being we study is a living and
researcher, he too is searching. And at the same time he
is constantly changing. When it comes to people,
the “real and the objective.” When it comes to
−195−
招待論文
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
understanding the management of organizations and the
on the journeyman-apprentice relationship, internships
leadership of people, the scientific project should focus
with leading experts and master classes. The case
on describing this reality as it appears at a given moment
method is intended as a kind of substitute for the actual
in time as humbly, as faithfully and as fully as possible.
relationship between a master and an apprentice. A case
Management, as we have said, is a matter of context
study should place the learner in the position of decision-
and historicity. Much more history is made by the
maker; it should lead him to reflect on a situation in a
leaders and organizations themselves than by the
manner that goes beyond the search for cookie-cutter
theoreticians who observe them and report on their
solutions. In particular, the type of case method we
behaviour and results. In order to manage a company, an
advocate relies on narratives that strive to present an in-
understanding of the complexity of people and
depth and well-documented description of practices, and
organizations is indispensable. It is only once one has a
to reflect, as faithfully as possible, the realities we want
better grasp of this complexity that one can simplify, get
to understand and that will constitute the object of
back to the essentials and steer a steady course through
learning. In all cases, it should offer an inductive method
both calm and stormy waters. Management is a practice
of learning in which the leading role is played by the
that is known and learned largely through experience –
learner.
first that of others, and then one’s own. It is an action
that is enhanced through reflection, and it is through
The Art of Being a Management Teacher
action coupled with reflection that one is able to develop
The way in which we ourselves learned has an
an approach that is very personal. Expertise cannot
undeniable influence on the type of teacher we go on to
replace experience.
become. A musician or singer necessarily learns his art
There is a common misconception that the same
from a master. It is thus much easier for him to favour a
development model or the same management processes
certain type of training and learning than for a manager
can be applied indiscriminately not only to all companies
to whom only abstract knowledge has been transmitted.
in North America, but also to all those in the former
The fact of having had the opportunity to learn within a
Soviet Union, Europe, Africa, Latin America, Haiti, etc.
mentor-type relationship, or simply to come into contact
But can it be said that all national and corporate
with expert managers, inevitably teaches us – by a
cultures, that all people and living conditions are the
process of osmosis – something about learning itself,
same everywhere? Do we know that what was true for a
thereby giving us a hand in shaping our own talent.
country or organization ten years ago is still true today
or will still be true in ten years? Of course not.
This might leave one with the impression, then, that
only expert managers make good candidates to become
In the field of management research, the case study
management teachers. However, experience has shown
method constitutes a direct empirical approach that
that very few of these managers have either the
serves as the basis for the production of documents and
competence or the desire to become researchers or
the advancement of knowledge. It is these documents
teachers in their field. To be a pedagogue requires
that then serve to support the process of learning
special qualities, years of preparation and continuous
practices and skills. The case method is based on
upgrading. The corollary of managing as you are, in the
openness and receptiveness in direct contact with people
field of management training, is teaching as you are, with
and real-life experiences. In the case method, priority is
all the challenges and shortcomings this implies.
given to the practice itself of management, to the
The fact is that very few senior managers become
rigorous study of the phenomenon. It involves a case-by-
good teachers. This is particularly true of those who
case analysis of real-life situations, where one is required
believe that teaching is simply a matter of describing
to examine the intelligence of the actions of those who
their experience, the risk, of course, being that they are
succeed (or fail) at management, and to derive
likely to run out of material after a couple of hours!
orientations, personal positions and new syntheses that
Training people to become managers does not – indeed, it
can then be put to good use in one’s own practices.
must not – consist in producing clones of ourselves. One
Management training should favour an approach based
is not born a good teacher of management.
−196−
Managing as Creating
Although it can give one an edge, like all talents, the
because it requires that the teacher resist a natural and
talent of master teacher of management is, for the most
legitimate urge to teach. In particular, it implies
part, something that one develops and acquires. The
resisting the traditional propensity to profess that we
innate aspect of that talent is but a foundation on which
have internalized since the very beginning of our
one must build. As in any job or profession, some people
education. Teaching using the inductive method means
have greater potential than others, which makes the
abandoning the desire to impress as a teacher.
selection process all the more crucial.
To become a teacher, a senior manager must
Rethinking Management Training
constantly upgrade his knowledge and skills, keep
Numbers, statistics and the use of mathematical
abreast of the many different ways in which management
language and quantitative methods are necessary – even
is exercised, and prepare to become a veritable master, a
indispensable – for good management and the
guide who is able to help others find their own way – that
development of effective solutions. These essential
is, to help them discover their talent. Often, he does this
aspects of management also make for less complex
with people younger and more brilliant than himself. Just
objects of training. However, one must always come back
as parents are proud to see their children not only do
to the essence of management as a praxis, a philosophy
things better and differently than them, but also surpass
of action and creation rooted in common sense. The most
them, what better source of pride for a professor than to
crucial aspect of managing lies here, in the act of setting
see his young students surpass the generations that
goals and objectives, of developing and assuming the
preceded them!
leadership of others while relying on one’s good
Along with his knowledge, the management expert
judgement.
also brings his qualities and shortcomings, his strengths
At the same time, it is important to keep in mind that a
and weaknesses to his teaching. What he is and what he
company can still offer a good product or quality service
does is more important than what he says. When we
while having a “home-made” management approach, one
truly believe in the power and value of an inductive
that is outside accepted norms and traditional canons of
pedagogical approach, while at the same time
correctness, or that avoids formal processes and popular
recognizing its limits, we are able to place our faith in the
theories. Although the company’s management may
intelligence of the person who is learning, not only in
seem deficient (in the eyes of experts), it may nonetheless
relation to a specific object of learning, but also in
be a very successful company. Similarly, a manager who
relation to learning how to learn. The goal is to make
has no academic training in management may excel at
the person who wants to learn autonomous and to
the job of leading an organization despite his lack of
sharpen his judgement.
formal training. On the other hand, using the latest or
Of course, it is possible to be a good teacher of
most popular management process or earning a degree
management without ever having practised the
from a prestigious management school can hardly be said
profession of manager! However, a teacher who does not
to constitute a guarantee of success.
have actual management experience and whose
Of course, this is not to say that we should call into
knowledge of management is not rooted in practice
question the existence of management schools. On the
should have the humility and the wisdom to call on the
contrary, a management school that maintains close ties
experience of those who do have first-hand experience
with the business community, with the world of action in
and who are talented and successful managers. He
all fields, can offer its students a valuable opportunity to
should also be willing to learn from his students, some of
document practices, build networks, save time, develop
whom may themselves have valuable management
critical thinking, shape or sharpen their judgement, learn
experience, and to use pedagogical approaches, such as
the art of persuasion and discover their own talent. It is
the case method, that allow him to compensate for his
up to the people at the universities themselves (directors,
lack of experience and to reflect on the practice of others
professors, researchers) to remain vigilant and to ward
along with his students.
off any attempts to sever these important ties. It is their
Teaching management is profoundly unsettling,
duty to safeguard the fundamental raison d’être of their
−197−
招待論文
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
urgent that management schools immediately step up
institution.
The message that is currently being sent, whether
directly or indirectly, to young professors coming out of
and assume a veritable leadership role in teaching the
freedom to think, to create and to manage.
doctoral management programs is that they must
produce a type of research that is intended solely for
Montreal, January 2005
（Received March 29, 2005）
their professor colleagues. To advance their careers,
they are expected to publish in scholarly journals that
are ranked according to how often their articles are cited
by other researchers. The drive for international
accreditation by management schools is pushing
LAPIERRE, Laurant
research and training programs toward ever greater
standardization.
Laurent Lapierre, Ph.D. (McGill
Ensconced in their ivory tower, conversing only with
University) is a Full Professor at
their own kind, research professors can reach a point
HEC Montreal and holder of the
where they lose sight of the actions of those who actually
Pierre-Peladeau
manage organizations in the real world. Supremely
Leadership. He served as the first director of the HEC’s
confident in their theoretical and normative models, they
Centre for Case Studies. His main interests lie in the
Chair
in
look down upon these people or, even worse, ignore them
influence of managers’ personalities on their management
totally. In such a context, it is not surprising to see
practices, as well as in the behaviours that determine
management schools cut themselves off from the world
success or failure in the exercise of leadership. He has
of action and head straight into a crisis of legitimacy.
served as director and editor-in-chief of the journal
Gestion, Revue internationale de gestion, and is the co-
Rejecting Management Fads
author of Imaginaire et leadership (3 volumes: 1992, 1993
Management, like education and creation, is not
and 1994), published by Quebec/Amerique and Presses
always exciting. It has its inevitable share of mechanical,
HEC. He has produced over 200 monographs and case
repetitive and technical aspects, and can indeed be
studies on leaders, managers, creators and artists,
routine and monotonous at times. However, the key
published for the most part at the HEC Montreal Centre
component of management is creativity, and, as such,
for Case Studies. In 1997, he was awarded the prestigious
management depends on imagination and intelligence to
Teaching Award by HEC Montreal, followed, in 2001, by
determine the course of action that will produce team
the 3M Teaching Fellowship bestowed by the Society for
results.
Teaching and Learning in Higher Education (STLHE). In
Despite the best efforts of their human resources
honour of these achievements, he was featured as
departments, companies that seek to trade in their
“Personality of the Week” in the August 5, 2001 issue of La
organizational culture in order to adopt the latest hot
Presse newspaper. Dr. Lapierre ’ s biography has been
management trend, with its ready-made models or magic
listed in the Canadian Who’s Who since 2001. In 2003, he
recipes, run the risk of achieving only relative and short-
was awarded the prestigious Leaders in Management
lived success.
Education Award (Quebec Region), co-sponsored by the
The intelligence itself of actions will always need to be
National Post and PriceWaterhouseCoopers. In 2004, he
rediscovered, described and diffused anew by
was appointed a member of the Board of Montreal, World
practitioners and apprentice managers alike, as well as
Book Capital for 2005, in addition to being named to the
by those who aspire to teach management.
Board and the Executive Committee of the Canada
In management, one must always strive to carve out a
Council for the Arts.
greater space for common sense, judgement and
creativity! To ensure that their ideas remain relevant
and are taken seriously, theoreticians need to remain
attentive to and observe management in practice. It is
−198−
Japanese Journal of Administrative Science
Volume18, No.3, 2005, 199-209.
原 著
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号, 2005, 199−209.
第二世代携帯電話とインターネットの普及についての研究
The City University of New York
■■■■■■ 日本大学経済学部
■ 学習院大学経済学部経営学科
The City University of New York
■■■■■■ J.C. Penny Co.,Inc.
a 田 博 和
斉 藤 嘉 一
上 田 隆 穂
Fiona Sussan
Yu-Min Chen
Analysis of Dynamic Diffusion Processes of the 2G Cellular Phones and the Access to Internet
Hirokazu Takada (CUNY), Kaichi Saito (Nihon University),
Takaho Ueda (Gakushuin University), Fiona Sussan (CUNY),
and Yu-Min Chen (J. C. Penny)
We analyze dynamic processes of diffusion of innovations of two information technologies,
the 2G cellular phones and the access to Internet in Japan, within the framework of
economic theories, namely substitution, complementary, and independent effects between
these innovations. The empirical results indicate that rapid diffusion of the 2G cellular
phones exerts a negative effect on the diffusion of internet access technology, thereby
suggesting the substitution effect between them. We, however, argue that this should be
considered as an outcome of the short term effect, and propose the long term strategy to
stimulate diffusion of both of these technologies based on the diffusion theory.
Keywords: diffusion of innovations, information technologies (IT), the Bass New Product
Growth Model, marketing.
のプロアクティブな行動が可能になったことにより，既
1. はじめに
存の企業から消費者へといった一方的な情報の流れに変
携帯電話やモバイルを含む情報技術（IT）関連産業に
化が生じている。むしろ，企業と消費者との間のフィー
おける過剰投資によるバブル崩壊の影響が経済のいたる
ドバック（B2C および C2B）がより円滑に行えるよう
ところで尾を引いている中，IT革命が日常生活へもたら
になってきている。このような企業と消費者間での情報
す様々な変化，その波及の度合いは日々増加しており，
の流れの変化は，IT製品が普及したことによって，消費
Wind, Mahajan, and Gunther (2002) はそのような変化が
者が携帯電話やPCからインターネットへアクセスし，
消費者にもたらす変化について検証している。従来は企
様々な商品情報を入手することが可能になったために起
業がマーケティング・ミックス（4P）の意思決定を行い，
こったものである。企業としても，消費者に対応してい
例えば企業が消費者に広告する，あるいは企業が価格を
くために，情報の流れの変化を先取りした戦略の必要性
設定し，消費者はその価格を受容してきた。つまり，企
が叫ばれている。そのためには，このような変化の背景
業から消費者へ一方通行の関係（B2C）にあったといえ
にあるIT製品の普及についてしっかりした理解が企業に
る。ところが，IT革命の進行により消費者が享受できる
求められてくる。本研究の目的は，第二世代携帯電話の
情報量が飛躍的に増大していることにより，意思決定の
普及プロセスと，PCからのインターネット・アクセス
機能が消費者に移行している事実（C2B）を指摘してい
の普及プロセスが，互いにどのような影響を及ぼしてい
る。具体的には，消費者が商品の価格について調べよう
るのかについて分析し，分析結果と普及理論に基づき長
とすれば，ウェブ上であらゆる情報が入手可能になって
期的な視点から，わが国のインターネット・アクセスを
いる。また，商品情報についても，企業からの情報だけ
促進させるための戦略を提示することである。
に依存することなく，ウェブ上の様々なソースあるいは
1999年に市場に導入されたNTTドコモのiモードをは
消費者間（C2C）の情報を収集できる。つまり，消費者
じめとする第二世代携帯電話は，短期間に急速に普及し，
−199−
原 著
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
そのサクセスストーリーは今や先進国から注目を集める
Mahajan, and Gunther (2002) がレビューしているよう
こととなった。殊に， 親指族
に，多くのリサーチャーによって研究されている（例え
の出現やiモード用のサ
イトの普及に伴う新たなビジネスモデルについてのニュ
ば，中島・陳 2001; 山田・古川 1995）
。
ースは世界中を駆け巡っている。確かに，今までの携帯
その土台になっているのが，Bass (1969) が開発した新
電話が通話のみ，という常識を打ち破り，メールのやり
製品普及モデルである。このモデルは多くの耐久消費財
取りやウェブ情報のダウンロードを何処にいてもモバイ
に適用され，その予測精度がきわめて高いことでよく知
ルで行えるという画期的なコンセプトを実現したことを
られている。しかし，このモデルが幅広く適用されてき
考えれば，驚くに足らない。この結果，eコマースなら
たより重要な理由は，モデルのパラメターｐとｑによっ
ぬm（モバイル）コマースが現実化している。
て，消費者が新製品を購買する，あるいは，普及論の定
わが国における一般世帯のインターネット普及につい
義に従えばイノベーションを採用するセグメントの行動
ては，2001年に政府主導の高度情報通信ネットワーク社
を説明することができる点にあるといえよう。バスはｐ
会推進戦略本部がまとめたレポート「e-Japan戦略」で
をイノベータによる，ｑをイミテーターによる普及度と
も指摘されているように，IT革命全体への取り組みが，
定義している。更に，イノベータは主に広告やマスコミ
欧米先進諸国やアジアの各国，殊にシンガポールや韓国
といった外部からの情報に依存しているが，一方，イミ
に比べて大幅に遅れている。このレポートを引用すると，
テーターは友人からの口コミや家族間のコミュニケーシ
「わが国のIT革命への取り組みは大きな遅れをとってい
ョンによる内部的な情報に依存している。普及論の実証
る。インターネットの普及率は，主要国の中で最低レベ
的な研究結果によれば，イノベータが普及に貢献する度
ルにあり，アジア・太平洋地域においても決して先進国
合いはイミテーターと比較して格段に低いことが判明し
であるとはいえない。また，ITがビジネスや行政にどれ
ている。この結果からマーケティング戦略上，イミテー
ほど浸透しているかという点から見ても，わが国の取り
ター，殊にオピニオンリーダーをターゲットとして規定
組みは遅れているといわざるを得ない。変化の速度が極
することが重要になってくる。バスモデルでは，このよ
めて速い中で，現在の遅れが将来取り返しのつかない競
うなセグメントをコミュニケーションの度合いにより規
争力格差を生み出すことにつながることを我々は認識す
定し，パラメタライズしているわけである。一方，モデ
る必要がある」。インターネットの普及を阻害していた
ルのパラメターの推定については，どのようなデータが
初期の要因としては，電話アクセスの際の通話料が先進
必要とされるのか。通常は，商品の売上げデータのよう
他国のように一律使い放題ではなく，時間加算によりコ
な時系列のマクロデータによりその推定が可能である。
スト高になってしまった点が考えられる。このような大
従って，コミュニケーションについての想定といったミ
きな問題を抱える一方で，最近では，その戦略の一環と
クロの消費者行動の側面と，アグリゲイトされたマクロ
してDSLやCATVによるいわゆるブロードバンドの急速
の普及プロセスがモデルの中で連携しているのである。
な普及が進んでいる。しかし，わが国全体のインターネ
バスによる基本モデルは，その後，様々な拡張がなされ
ット・アクセスからすれば，まだ大半を占めてはおらず，
ているが，それについては，上記の Mahajan, Muller,
全体を見れば，立ち遅れている状況に変わりはないとい
and Bass (1990)，及び Wind, Mahajan, and Gunther
えるだろう。
(2002) に掲載されている参考文献を参照されたい。この
このような第二世代携帯電話とインターネットの普及
バスモデルは，IT関連の市場にも適用されており，例え
に関する議論が盛んになされているなか，理論的かつ実
ば，Dekimpe, Parker, and Miklos (2000) が，携帯電話の
証的なリサーチは未だ充分になされていない。本研究で
グローバル・マーケットにおける普及をモデル化してい
は，前述したように，わが国におけるインターネットの
る。本研究では，バスモデルをわが国のインターネッ
普及が，NTTドコモのiモードに代表される第二世代携
ト・アクセスについてのケースに適用する。
帯電話の普及によってどのような影響を受けているかに
ITの普及プロセスを考える際には，Rogers (1995) が
ついての実証分析を行い，その結果に基づいた提案，す
提唱している「関連する技術のクラスター（Cluster of
なわち，さらなるインターネットの普及を図るための戦
interrelated technologies）の重要性」に言及する必要が
略を提示する。
ある。ここで言う関連する技術のクラスターが意味して
2. ディフュージョン・リサーチとIT革命
マーケティング・リサーチにおける普及論の研究は，
Mahajan, Muller, and Bass (1990) や最近ではWind,
いるのは，例えば，インターネットや次世代携帯電話の
ような複雑なイノベーションが普及するためには，ある
特定の技術だけに依存するのではなく，関連したイノベ
ーション，すなわちインターネットの場合には，ウェブ，
−200−
第二世代携帯電話とインターネットの普及についての研究
ブラウザー，TCP/IPのようなプロトコール，HTMLの
セスに及ぼす効果として，代替効果，補完効果，独立と
ようなハイパーテキスト，パケット・スイッチング・ト
いう3種類の仮説が考えられる。
ランスミッション（packet switching transmission）と
仮説1．
代替効果とは，新規のイノベーションが従
いった関連する技術の開発が欠かせない。従って，マー
来のイノベーションと比較して優れている場合に，消費
ケティング・リサーチャーが従来，研究対象としてきた
者が新規イノベーションにスイッチすることにより，従
耐久消費財や，CDやDVDのようなハイテク商品の普及
来のイノベーションの普及率が低下する，あるいは，そ
プロセスと比較して，本研究の対象になっている第二世
の普及速度が落ち込むといった，新規のイノベーション
代携帯電話とインターネットの普及プロセスは格段に複
の従来のイノベーションに対する効果である。第二世代
雑であることを理解する必要がある。本研究の実証分析
携帯電話の場合は，その急激な普及が，インターネッ
では直接モデル化はしていないものの，「関連する技術
ト・アクセスの普及率を低下させる，その結果，新規契
クラスター」がこの複雑性を説明する要因でもある。ち
約数が急激に落ち込んでしまうといった状況が代替効果
なみに，NTTドコモのiモードが海外で注目を集めてい
のケースに相当する。モデル上では，両イノベーション
る理由は，その関連テクノロジーがインターネットで使
の普及の相関関係は負として表される。
仮説2．
われているテクノロジーと適合している点にあり，mコ
補完効果は，新規のイノベーションが従来
マースの普及にとって，そのメリットは計り知れない。
のイノベーションにとってお互いに補完しあうような関
他方，米国で一般的に使われている携帯電話のテクノロ
係を指す。つまり，第二世代携帯電話が普及し，消費者
ジーは，このような適合性に欠けている。
が携帯電話でメールのやり取りをするうちに，PCでの
メールに優位性を見出し，PCからのインターネット・
3. 仮説
アクセスが増加するという効果である。両イノベーショ
わが国におけるインターネットの普及は1990年代中頃
ンの普及の相関関係は正として表される。
仮説3．
から始まった。オフィスや学校での普及度は高く，他先
新規と従来のイノベーションが相互に独立
進諸国と比較しても遜色はない。また，B2Bのようなビ
の場合は，機能的な面で代替性や補完性がないため，そ
ジネス間でのインターネットの利用は，高度に普及して
の普及プロセス間に相関関係がない。このとき，モデル
いるものと思われる。しかし，本論文のはじめに参照し
上では，両イノベーションの普及の相関関係はゼロにな
た「e-Japan戦略」でも指摘しているように，一般世帯
る。第二世代携帯電話とインターネット・アクセスのケ
での普及率は先進諸国および韓国をはじめ近隣諸国に比
ースでは，両イノベーションがIT関連の製品であるにも
べて低い。本研究では，この一般世帯におけるインター
かかわらず，消費者にとっては，完全に別個のものとし
ネットの普及を対象とする。その理由は，オフィスでの
て認知されることになる。
インターネットの利用がメールのやり取りといった仕事
上の連絡など，イントラネット的な利用に限定されがち
4. 実証分析
であり，一般消費財の購買，すなわちB2Cを普及させる
第二世代携帯電話とインターネット・アクセスの普及プ
ためには，研究の対象をあくまでも一般消費者あるいは
ロセスの間に，代替効果，補完効果，あるいは，独立の
一般世帯とする必要があり，将来の情報社会が発展して
関係があるのかを検証するために，実証分析を行った。
いく上で，その基盤を支えていく主体であると考えてい
インターネット・アクセスのデータは，1992年6月から
るからである。
1999年6月についてはニューメディア開発協会の資料か
NTTドコモのiモードが1999年に市場に導入されて以
ら，2000年6月については総務省から得た。このインタ
来，第二世代携帯電話は急速な普及を遂げ，従来の携帯
ーネット・アクセスのデータは一般家庭におけるプロバ
電話の用途であった通話を越えて，新たな用途を次々と
イダー契約者数を表し，業務用の契約数は含まれていな
開拓していった。 親指族
の出現やダウンロードする
い。第二世代携帯電話については，携帯電話IP接続サー
際に料金を徴収するNTTドコモの新ビジネスモデルにつ
ビス（iモード，EZweb，J-Sky）の契約者数の合計であ
いては，世界中の注目を集めた。iモードをはじめとす
り，総務省の月次データによる（図1）
。
る第二世代携帯電話の急速な普及は，従来のテクノロジ
図1からも分るように，インターネットの普及について
ーであるPCからのインターネット・アクセスの普及プ
は，1997年度まで右肩上がりの上昇を示しているが，
ロセスにどのような影響を与えているのか。この問題が
1998年度に落ち込み，1999年度には一旦上昇するものの
本研究の主要課題である。第二世代携帯電話の普及プロ
2000年には下降している。なおDSLの本格的な普及は，
セスがPCからのインターネット・アクセスの普及プロ
2001年の後半以降に始まっており，2000年6月までのプ
−201−
原 著
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
図 1 データ
ロバイダー契約数に与える影響は皆無に近い。同様に，
CATVについても2000年6月までのプロバイダー契約数
には，ほとんど貢献していない。他方，第二世代携帯電
話の普及については，2000年6月に一時的な落ち込みが
ここで，m：潜在的な市場規模の係数，p：外在的な普
みられるものの，1999年3月より急激に普及している。
及に及ぼす影響の係数，q：内在的な普及に及ぼす影響
の係数である。
モデル
このモデルをインターネット・アクセスと第二世代携
バスモデルにおいて，耐久消費財のｔ期ユニット売り
帯電話の普及データに適用した。モデルの推定では，不
偏のパラメター推定値を得るため，Jain and Rao (1990) が
上げ S ( t i ) は，下記の式で表される（Bass 1969）
開発した非線形推定アルゴリズムを採用した。インター
ネット・アクセスについては，1992年から2000年までの
データと，1992年から1997年までのデータの2種類のデー
ここで，Y ( t )：ｔ期までの累積売り上げ，e ( t i )：撹乱項
タを用いて推定を行った。前者のデータは1998年と2000
である。また，F ( t ) は下記の式で定義される。
年の落ち込みをカバーしており，図2からはモデルがこ
のデータによくフィットしていることがうかがえる。
図 2 バスモデルのインターネット・アクセスへの適用結果（1992年−2000年）
−202−
第二世代携帯電話とインターネットの普及についての研究
しかし，このモデルを使い将来予測を実施したが，その
測となっている。1992年から1997年までのデータにモデ
結果は，1999年以降は下降線をたどり，極めて険悪な予
ルを適用した結果が図3である。
図 3 バスモデルのインターネット・アクセスへの適用結果（1992年−1997年）
第二世代携帯電話のデータにモデルを適用した結果が
モデルのフィットは前者に比べて向上しており，インタ
ーネット・アクセスの普及が順調なパターンとして表さ
図4である。
れている。また，モデルはピークが2003年あたりに生じ
決定係数は0.953であり，モデルはデータによくフィッ
ると予測している。
トしたことがわかる。ここで注目したい点は，第二世代
図 4 バスモデルの携帯電話への適用結果
携帯電話の普及についてはそのピークが2000年後半に既
のケースが想定される。Mahajan and Peterson (1978) は
に生じており，将来は下降線を辿ることが予測される点
それぞれのケースについてバスモデルを基に理論的なモ
である。このことから，現在，NTTドコモが米国，欧州，
デル展開をはかり，その実証分析を行っている。また，
アジアにおいてiモードの海外戦略を積極的に進めてい
代替効果についてはNorton and Bass (1987) がPCのCPU
る背景が伺える。また，2002年に第三世代携帯電話の導
の世代交代のケースをもとに，理論的な展開と実証的な
入が行われたが，その背景には，このような需要が頭打
検定で優れた結果をもたらしている。理論的には，彼等
ちになっている国内市場の状況があるといえる。
の研究は本研究の参考にはなるが，ここでは，データの
第二世代携帯電話の普及がインターネットの普及に及
制約から，彼等が開発したモデルを適用することはでき
ぼす影響については，代替効果，補完効果，独立の3つ
ない。その主な理由は，インターネット・アクセスにつ
−203−
原 著
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
いては年次データ，一方，第二世代携帯電話については
デルとデータの制約上から，第二世代携帯電話→インタ
月次データであり，両普及データのデータ・インターバ
ーネット・アクセスという因果関係を想定している。し
ルが異なっているところにある。第二世代携帯電話のデ
たがって，推定結果の解釈についても厳密には相関関係
ータを年次データとして統合することも可能ではある
ではなく，方向性のある関係について，という点を指摘
が，普及の立ち上がりが1999年2月からと最近のため，
しておく。
実証分析に充分な観測数を得ることができなくなる。従
って，上記バスモデルをもとに，下記のモデルを展開し
推定結果と解釈
た。
決定係数は0.966と極めて良好であり，このモデルは
通常のバスモデル（図2参照）よりもよくデータにフィ
ットしたことがわかる。パラメター推定値は，下記のと
おりである。
I ( t i ) は，第二世代携帯電話が導入された1999年以降を1
とし，それ以外は0とするダミー変数である。また，パ
ラメターβは第二世代携帯電話がインターネット・アク
セスの普及に与える影響を捉える。つまり，第二世代携
カッコ内の数値は漸近的標準誤差を示している。推定結
帯電話がインターネット・アクセスに対して代替効果を
果から，全てのパラメター推定値が有意であることが分
持つならば，βの推定値は負の値となり，補完効果を持
かる。また，バスモデルから，将来予測についての情報
つならば正の値となる。他方，独立であれば，その推定
を得ることができる。普及ピーク時における値と，その
値はゼロになる。また，推定値の絶対値の大きさから，
時 期 に つ い て の 推 定 値 は ， peak sales=3496， peak
第二世代携帯電話がインターネット・アクセスに対して
period=6.76である。なお，最も重要なβの推定値につ
及ぼす影響の強度を知ることができる。このように3つ
いてはβ=−1501(449)であり，符号が負であることから，
の効果について決定するためには理論的には第二世代携
第二世代携帯電話とインターネット・アクセスの普及プ
帯電話とインターネット・アクセスについての相関関係
ロセスの間には代替効果が生じていることが分かる。こ
を推定する必要がある。しかし，モデル上ではダミー変
のように，第二世代携帯電話の登場がインターネット・
数を使用している関係から，第二世代携帯電話の普及が
アクセスにネガティブな影響を与えていることが推定結
インターネット・アクセスに与える影響として捉えるこ
果から確認することができる。図5は，パラメター推定
とになる。2変数の相関関係では，変数間の因果関係に
値に基づく予測値と観測値のグラフである。
ついての方向性を想定する必要がないが，ここでは，モ
図 5 ダミー・バスモデルのインターネット・アクセスへの適用結果（1992年−2000年）
−204−
第二世代携帯電話とインターネットの普及についての研究
ITの普及に伴い，次世代携帯電話の普及やワイヤレス
この図5から分かる通り，このモデルは，インターネッ
によるインターネットへのアクセス（Wi-Fi）が実現し
ト・アクセスをよく予測していることがわかる。
てくると，将来はいわゆるeコマースとmコマースの更
5. 考察
なる活発化が予測されてくる。このような状況下では，
バスモデルを適用した分析結果からは，第二世代携帯
消費者のITへのニーズは，携帯電話のみといった画一的
電話の登場がインターネット・アクセスに負の影響を与
なものではなく，状況に応じてアクセスのデバイスを使
えていることが判明した。しかし，この結果から，第二
い分けるようになることが充分予想される。従って，長
世代携帯電話の登場がインターネット・アクセスの普及
期的には携帯電話とインターネット・アクセスは，補完
に障害になっていると結論付けるのは早計であり，むし
的な枠組みとして捉えられるべきであると考える。最近，
ろこの結果を短期的，そして長期的な視点に立って検討
第三世代携帯電話やPDAが普及し，ワイヤレスモデム搭
する必要がある。短期的には，第二世代携帯電話とイン
載のノートPCからインターネット・アクセスへの普及
ターネット・アクセスの間に代替効果が生じている。し
が現実化している現象は，これらIT製品間における補完
かし，長期的には，両イノベーションの間には補完的な
関係を客観的に立証しているといえよう。
関係が考えられる。この点については，第二世代の携帯
今回の研究では，インターネット・アクセスのデータ
電話が普及し始めた時点（2000年）前後を境に，第二世
は主にモデムによる接続，例えば56kといったスロース
代携帯電話とPCによるインターネット・アクセスとの
ピードの接続を対象としたものである。消費者は，プロ
普及の代替・補完関係に変化が生じていることが，昨今
バイダーへの接続料に加え，電話接続使用料を支払って
の若い世代の人達を観察することによりよく理解でき
いるため，結局，インターネットへのアクセスは，諸外
る。2000年以前は，PCによるインターネット・アクセ
国と比較して極めて高価なものになってしまい，アクセ
スの普及が早かったため，PCによるインターネット・
スにもそれなりの影響が出てくる。このような，いわば
アクセスから携帯メールに移行していくパターンが主流
制度的な要因が，代替効果に寄与していることは否定で
であった。これは絶対的に必要な通話に加えて，低コス
きない。このような観点から，比較的低料金で，しかも
トで利用できる携帯メールの経済性が大きな要因だった
ハイスピードアクセスが可能なブロードバンドが急激に
だろう。このようなパターンによれば，第二世代携帯電
普及しているのは理解できる。しかし，その普及率は，
話が急速に普及することにより代替効果が生じること
韓国や諸外国に比べて以前低く，普及率を高めるために
は，充分考えられる。しかし，2000年以降は，中高校生
は，普及理論による5つの特性を分析したうえで普及戦
が携帯電話によりメールを使いこなしてから，PCにも
略を策案し，実行する必要がある。
参入し，インターネット・アクセスも始めるというパタ
現時点では，FOMAのような第三世代の携帯電話が導
ーンが主流になってきている。したがって，この時点あ
入され，また，DSLを含めたブロードバンドの普及が進
たりから，第二世代携帯電話とPCによるインターネッ
行している。普及のプロセスからすれば，導入期から成
ト・アクセスとの使い分けが始まっており，以前みられ
長期に差しかかった段階といえる。今後，このようなテ
た代替効果から補完効果に移行していると考えられる。
クノロジーを普及させるための戦略をここで，考察して
即ち，PCによるインターネット・アクセスの普及の質
みる。普及戦略を考察するうえでの観点については，本
が変化しているのがうかがえる。
研究の実証分析で使用したデータの内容からも明らかな
最近の携帯電話の使われ方をみていると，メールの送
ように，特定の企業を対象としたものではなく，例えば，
受信，幅広いサイトから情報をダウンロードする，買い
インターネット・アクセスについては各社の契約数を集
物や銀行口座の処理をする，といった従来の携帯電話と
計したデータを分析している。実証分析と考察の内容を
は比較にならないような複雑な機能を果たしている。最
整合するためには，データのアグリゲーションのレベル
近見られる，写真による画像や映像の交換といったよう
を統合する必要がある。したがって，ここで考察する戦
な多機能化は将来，さらに進行するものと思われる。こ
略については，わが国の将来あるべきIT戦略としてとら
のようなサイバースペースを通じたコミュニケーション
え，それを提示することを目指している。
を促進する携帯電話の使われ方は，消費者の啓蒙につな
ここで提示しようとしている基本戦略と企業戦略とは
がり多機能とはいえ機能性に限りのある携帯電話から真
どのように関連しているのか。各企業にとっては，個別
に多機能なインターネットへの需要を喚起するものと思
の企業戦略を策案するうえで，普及理論にもとづいたIT
われる。最近のブロードバンドの急激な普及ぶりをみて
戦略についての充分な理解が求められるのは言うまでも
いると，このような傾向を確認することができる。
ない。更に，他社との差別化を明確に規定し独自のポジ
−205−
原 著
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
ショニングを確立するための戦略を打ち出す必要があ
普及理論によれば新規イノベーションが成功するため
る。将来の企業のIT戦略には，家庭やオフィスのインタ
には5つの特性において優れている必要がある。その5つ
ーネットやモバイルに加え，Wi-FiやPDAによるユビキ
の特性とは，相対的な利点（relative advantages）
，適合
タスなアクセスを念頭においた多角的なポートフォリオ
性（compatibility），複雑性（complexity），分割可能性
（divisibility）
，伝達度（communicability）を指す（表1）
。
戦略が求められる。
表 1 成功要因とマーケティング・ミックスの関連
5大特性については，通常，単独のイノベーションを普
析していくことが重要になってくる。消費者は携帯電話
及させるために，どのような戦略をとれば効果が上がる
の特性をどのように理解し，その利点をどこまで把握し
のかといった観点から，幅広い製品の導入戦略を作成す
ているのだろうか。消費者が携帯電話の利点をしっかり
るのに応用されている。しかし，ここでは，ブロードバ
と理解していれば，当然，その普及のスピードも速くな
ンドを含めたインターネット・アクセスと次世代携帯電
ってくることが期待される。このような効果を一覧にし
話も考慮した携帯電話全般をいかに普及させるか，つま
たのが表1である。この表で普及率に与える影響をみる
り，異なるイノベーションを同時に普及させるためには，
と，携帯電話が既存のテクノロジーに比べ，相対的な利
どのような戦略が必要とされるのか，というのが課題で
点を有していればいるほど，その普及率が高まる，つま
ある。そのために，5大特性の枠組みを応用しながら，
り，表1の「特性が普及率に与える影響」に表してある
有効な普及戦略を導き出していく。基本的な戦略は，二
ように正の関係にあることが分かる。表1から，複雑性
つのイノベーションの間に補完関係を構築するというこ
が負の関係にある以外は，他の特性を訴求することによ
とである。そこで，5大特性のそれぞれについて，消費
り，普及率が上昇することがわかる。
このような議論は，既に，普及理論で論じられている
者の観点に立って考察することにする。
ものをまとめたものであるが，表1に示されているマー
1. 相対的な利点−イノベーションがそれにとって替わ
ケティング・ミックスとの関連は，本研究で展開し，提
るアイデアよりも，より良いものであると知覚される度
唱しているものである。消費者にとっての相対的な利点
合いのことと定義される。イノベーションである携帯電
の特性を高め，普及を促進するためには，マーケティン
話が既存のインターネット・アクセスに比べてその利点
グ・ミックス全体の戦略が必要になってくる。製品につ
あるいは有利性がどこまで消費者に理解されているの
いて言えば，携帯電話の製品特性を訴求し，消費者にと
か。ここでは大事なことは，携帯電話のベネフィットに
って使い勝手が良いようにする。具体的には，専門知識
ついて，消費者がどのように理解し認知しているかとい
がなくても，プロバイダーに契約の申し込みさえすれば，
う点である。相対的有利性というと，とかく，携帯電話
瞬時にアクセスが可能になり，多機能性の利便を享受す
とインターネット・アクセスの技術的な側面の比較にな
ることができる。広告では，消費者の使い勝手のよさ，
ってしまうが，そうするといわゆるマーケティング志向
低料金，手続きの簡便さをアピールする。価格について
ではなくテクノロジー志向の解釈になってしまう。この
は，一目瞭然の料金体制，ADSLでは既に使われている
特性に限らず，すべての普及特性を，マーケティング志
が，使い放題一定料金といった設定にする。流通につい
向に則って理解する，つまり，消費者の立場に立って分
ては，特定地域だけに絞ることなく，主要都市をカバー
−206−
第二世代携帯電話とインターネットの普及についての研究
する。このような枠組みで普及戦略を組み立てていくと，
3. 複雑性−イノベーションがどのようなものかを理解
きめ細かな且つマーケティング志向のプラニングが可能
したり，使用することが難しいと知覚される度合いをさ
になる。また，マーケティング・リサーチを計画するう
す。イノベーションはどんなものでも，複雑性−単純性
えでも，どのような情報が，どの特性について必要かが
の連続線上で分類することができる。電動歯ブラシのよ
把握できる。
うに単純な製品であれば，この特性は，あまり問題にな
このように普及理論による相対的な利点の定義では，
らないが，携帯電話のように，技術的に複雑なイノベー
それぞれのテクノロジーの利点を，単独に考察している
ションでは，消費者にとっての使い勝手を充分に考慮す
が，ここではさらに，両テクノロジーの補完的な利点に
る必要がある。前述した高度な適合性を達成するために
フォーカスしてみる。それは，二つのテクノロジーの間
は，それなりのITの技術開発が必要になってくるが，消
に，互換性がある，ということが考えられる。例えば，
費者にとっては，技術の内容については関心がなく，む
ある情報にアクセスする必要が生じたとき，あるいは，
しろ，使い勝手が良いか否かが，普及の決め手になる。
メールのやり取りをする際に，自宅にいても，外出先で
そのためには，そのような使い勝手を考慮した製品開発
も，それが容易に行える。これは，技術的な問題として
が要求される。例えば，携帯電話からであろうと，デス
捉えるだけではなく，ユーザーの使い勝手を究極まで追
クトップPCからであろうと，同じコマンドやアイコン
及するためには避けては通れない問題として捉えるべき
に統一する，といった努力が必要になってくる。また，
である。このような，高度の互換性が実現していれば，
複雑性ではなく使い勝手を強調するような広告，インス
どちらかのイノベーションを選択しそれに頼ってしまう
トラクションが重要になってくる。
という，代替性に陥るリスクトラップは減少する。
そこで，インターネット・アクセスと携帯電話を両方
4. 分割可能性−商品が分割できる度合いをさす。分割
所有し使い分けることにより，どのような利点があるか
が可能であれば，価格低下につながり，トライアル・パ
について考察してみる。ブロードバンドを含めたインタ
ーチェスの促進につながる。この特性は，家庭用洗剤の
ーネットによるアクセスの利点は，やはりそのアクセ
ような商品を小さいパッケージにして価格を下げること
ス・スピードと情報量にあり，画像，映画，ミュージッ
により，幅広い購買が期待できる。この特性が次世代携
クといったマルチメディアのコンテンツへのアクセスが
帯電話のようなイノベーションにも適応するのであろう
可能になる点にある。大量の情報が瞬時に入手できる。
か。もちろん，適応し，トライアル期間中の特別料金を
また，月ぎめ料金体系により，常時アクセスができるこ
設定する，といった戦術が考えられる。また，機能の選
と。一方，次世代携帯電話については，モバイルなため，
択肢を設けることにより，あるいは，アクセススピード
どこにいようと，コミュニケーションができる点にあ
に応じて，幅広い料金設定を行う，というのも，この特
る。
性に基づいた戦術として考えられる。ここでは，消費者
にとってのコストを低く抑えるためには，どうしたらよ
2. 適合性−イノベーションが消費者の価値観，過去の
いのか，という問題として捉えることができる。DSLの
経験，ニーズと一致していると知覚される度合いをさす。
ようなブロードバンドアクセスでは，低コストが，普及
ここで，イノベーションの連続・非連続の度合いにより
の促進する要因になってきた。携帯電話と連携での使用
適合性の重要度が異なってくる。連続的なイノベーショ
を促進するため，インターネット・アクセスと携帯電話
ンは，既存の製品を改良したようなものをさす。従って，
の接続料をパッケージにして，別個で購入するよりも，
消費者は，新たに，使い方を学ぶことはない。ところが，
安価に価格設定をする，といった戦術が考えられる。
非連続のイノベーションでは，既存の製品とは全く異な
ったものになるので，消費者は，商品についての使い方
5. 伝達度−イノベーションの特性を広告等で消費者に
について学習する，あるいは，いままでのライフスタイ
伝える度合いを意味する。この特性は，複雑性の特性と
ルを変更する，という大幅なアジャストメントをする必
同様に，イノベーションが複雑であり，非連続であれば，
要がでてくる。従って，非連続のイノベーションでは，
正確にコミュニケートするのが困難になってくる。たと
適合性の特性について，きめ細かく分析する必要がある。
え，単純なイノベーションでも，消費者のニーズにあっ
ここで，携帯電話についてはどうか。既存の携帯電話を
た情報でないと，普及率にそれなりの影響がでてしまう。
経験している消費者にとっては次世代の携帯電話は，新
次世代携帯電話の普及には，技術的な情報もさることな
たな機能が加わってはいるものの，基本的な技術を学習
がら，ファースト・アクセスによりグローバルなウェブ
することがないので連続的なイノベーションといえる。
上のコンテンツが瞬時に入手可能，といったようなソフ
−207−
原 著
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
トの面でのメリットを的確にコミュニケートすることが
の主要課題は，第二世代携帯電話とインターネット・ア
重要になってくる。ブロードバンドと携帯電話の特性を
クセスというコミュニケーション・テクノロジーのいわ
広告で訴求する際に，互換性や，共有することによるメ
ばインフラ的な側面にフォーカスしてきたが，将来の研
リットを強調する。それにより，消費者の認識を促す，
究としてはそのインフラを使って行われているeコマー
といった戦略が考えられる。
スやmコマースについての普及プロセスを分析する必要
がある。
このような考察をとおして示唆されている点を総括的
参考文献
に盛り込んだ戦略が，長期的視点に立ったIT普及には欠
かせない。将来，たとえ優れたITイノベーションが出現
Bass, Frank M. 1969 A New Product Growth Model for
したとしても，既存のイノベーションとの補完性をしっ
Consumer Durables. Management Science, 15, 215227.
かりと把握し，総合的でプロアクティブな普及戦略が要
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1994 Why the Bass Model Fits without Decision
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戦略を検討してきた。しかし，情報産業がグローバル市
Dekimpe, Marnik G., Philip M. Parker, and Sarvary
場にもたらしている多様なイノベーションの出現を考え
Miklos 2000 Global Diffusion of Technological
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of Marketing Research, 37, 47-59.
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間におけるダイナミックな関連性を消費者の立場から充
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6. まとめと今後の課題
Gatignon, Hubert, Joshua Eliashberg, and Thomas S.
本研究では，ダミー変数を組み込んだバスモデルに基
Robertson 1989 Modeling Multinational Diffusion
づいて，第二世代携帯電話がインターネット・アクセス
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インターバルが異なるため，双方のダイナミックな相互
関連のモデリングを包括的にできなかったこと，したが
Helsen, Kristiaan, Kamel Jedidi, and Wayne S. DeSarbo
って，既存のテクノロジーであるインターネットが第二
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ことが考えられる。バスモデルの応用研究では，価格が
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スについての普及プロセスの比較研究を行うことによ
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−208−
第二世代携帯電話とインターネットの普及についての研究
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新製品普及パターンの分
類．マーケティング・サイエンス，4，16-36．
（平成16年 7 月30日受稿，平成17年 3 月 3 日受理）
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Japanese Journal of Administrative Science
Volume18, No.3, 2005, 211-222.
Article
原 著
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号, 2005, 211−222.
Growth and Ownership:
Evidence from Foreign Manufacturing Affiliates in Japan１
Lailani L. Alcantara２
(University of Tsukuba)
Yasuo Hoshino
(University of Tsukuba)
Using panel data on 500 foreign manufacturing affiliates in Japan over the period 19912000, fixed effect estimates indicate that partnership with a local firm increases the growth
potential of foreign firms but is less beneficial for larger and older foreign affiliates. Also, it
is found that size and age have significant effects on foreign affiliate growth as
demonstrated in previous studies on domestic firms. Hence, the size, age, and ownership
structure of foreign affiliates appear to be important considerations in determining longterm growth potential from a policy perspective.
Keywords: joint venture; growth; ownership; foreign affiliate; Japan.
Foreign Direct Investment, conducted by the Japan
1. INTRODUCTION
External Trade Organization (JETRO) in 2000, reports
Most countries have recognized the increasing
that 80% of foreign firms operating in Japan have added
significance of foreign direct investment (FDI) in
their workforce since they were founded.３ Yet there has
accelerating and sustaining an economy. Japan is not an
been almost no previous research examining the growth
exception. The Japanese government has been
of foreign firms in the country, which is our major
accelerating its efforts to promote investment in the
concern in this study. We expect that this study will not
country. As a result, FDI into Japan has gained in
only contribute to firm growth literature but also will
momentum considerably in recent years. FDI inflow
draw attention from other scholars.
soared from ¥369.7 billion in 1995 to ¥3.1 trillion in 2000,
Previous empirical studies on firm growth are
of which 36% are investments by foreign-affiliated firms
basically focused on domestic firms (e.g., Simon and
(Ministry of Finance, Japan). The Survey on the Actual
Bonini, 1958; Evans, 1987; Hart and Oulton, 1996; Sutton,
Conditions Regarding Access to Japan for Inward
1997; Goddard and Blandon, 2002). These studies provide
evidence on scale effects on growth; and demonstrate
１ The earlier versions of this paper were presented at
that smaller and younger firms grow faster than larger
the 4th Annual Hawaii International Conference on
and older firms (Dunne, Roberts and Samuelson, 1989;
Business, East-West Center/East-West Center
Dunne and Hughes, 1994; Geroski, 1995), as predicted by
Association (EWC/EWCA) 2004 International
Jovanovic’s (1982) learning theory. In contrast,
Conference in Tokyo, and 12th Annual Conference on
Shanmugam and Bhaduri (2002) find that older firms
Pacific Basin Finance, Economics, Accounting and
grow faster than younger firms using a sample of firms in
Business in Thailand. The authors are grateful to two
a developing economy. Hence, the conclusion regarding
anonymous reviewers of the Japanese Journal of
the scale effect as well as age effect on growth is still far
Administrative Science and Prof. Stephen J. Turnbull,
from agreement.
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the growth
University of Tsukuba for their valuable contributions.
pattern of foreign-affiliated firms operating in the
However, any remaining errors are ours.
２ Corresponding author. Tel.: +81-9035729033. Fax. +8129-855-3849. E-mail address: [email protected]
３ See http://www.jetro.go.jp/ip/e/access/e_toushi.pdf.
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原 著
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
manufacturing sector of Japan between 1991 and 2000 by
On the other hand, there is a large body of studies that
extending the existing studies on firm growth and
negates the validity of Gibrat’s Law. These studies find
considering the ownership structure of these affiliates.
significant scale effect on growth although implications
The ownership structure of foreign affiliates has been
have been mixed. Hall (1987) in his investigation of the
examined in the context of the entry mode literature
dynamics of firm growth in the US manufacturing sector
(Delios and Beamish, 1999). However, an overlooked
finds that firm size and growth are negatively related
issue is that the ownership strategy of a foreign investor
and the variance in growth rates across firms changes
may affect the growth of an established foreign firm,
significantly over time. Evans (1987), examining the
noting that most foreign investors alter their ownership
relationship between firm size and growth with several
strategy over time. There has been almost no previous
alternative samples of firms, also finds that firm growth
research on whether engaging in joint ventures
decreases with firm size for all relevant samples and
contributes to the growth of a foreign firm in a host
proves that the negative relationship is significant and
country. In the only research reported to date, Blonigen
robust to sample censoring, which rejects the argument
and Tomlin (2001), examine the growth of Japanese
of Mansfield (1962) that the inverse relationship is an
manufacturing affiliates in the US.
artifact of the exit of slow-growing firms from the
In our descriptive and empirical analyses, we use a 3-
sample.６
year unbalanced panel data set of 500 foreign affiliates
Following Evans (1987), Dunne, Roberts and
from Affiliates and Offices of Foreign Corporations in
Samuelson (1989) explore a data set of over 200,000 plants
Japan, published by Nihon Keizai Shimbun Inc., unlike
that entered the US manufacturing sector in the 1967,
in previous studies in which cross-sectional data is
1972, or 1977 Census of Manufactures and avoid the
employed. In descriptive analysis, we analyze the
sampling difficulties by grouping observations on
dynamic growth behavior of the same foreign affiliate. To
individual plants into cells based on the plant’s current
control for fixed effects, fixed effects estimations are
size, age, two-digit industry, year of observation,
used in the empirical analysis. Also, to observe whether
establishment ownership status, and initial size. The
growth pattern varies across different groups of samples,
empirical results indicate that the firm growth-size
we estimate the growth model separately by size and
relationship is negative for plants owned by single-plant
ownership structure in our empirical analysis.
firms but positive for plants owned by multiplant firms.
Aside from the econometrical issues addressed in the
LITERATURE REVIEW
studies of Hall, and Dunne, Roberts, and Samuelson,
The study on the relationship between firm size and
these studies also examine the linkage between firm size
growth can be traced back on the early 1930’s４. Gibrat’s
and growth by including firm age as a determinant of
Law, also known as the Law of Proportional Effect,
firm growth. These studies suggest a decreasing growth
which as interpreted by Sutton (1997) argues that the
effect of age: the proportional rate of growth becomes
expected value of the increment to a firm’s size in each
smaller as the firm gets older. As Evans indicated, the
period is proportional to the current size of the firm. In
firm age-growth relationship, is important because some
support of this law, earlier authors show no significant
earlier theories of firm growth predict a particular
relationship between firm growth and size such as Simon
pattern of growth over the life cycle of the firm. Ever
and Bonini (1958), and Hymer and Pashigian (1962).５
since this argument, the firm growth model is extended
by considering the scale effect as well as the age effect７.
The validity of Gibrat’s Law has also been tested for
４ Firm size is measured in a number of ways such as by
sales, employment and assets.
５ The study of Simon and Bonini is based on the British
６ The sample consists of approximately 20,000
data of Hart and Prais (1956) and data on large
manufacturing firms drawn the Small Business Data
American firms in 1955 while that of Hymer and
Base (SBDB) constructed by the Office of Advocacy of
Pashigian is based on 1,000 largest manufacturing
the US Small Business Administration (SBA) for 1976,
firms in the US between 1946 and 1955.
1978, 1980 and 1982.
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Growth and Ownership: Evidence from Foreign Manufacturing Affiliates in Japan
Japanese firms. Goddard and Blandon (2002) employ
cross sectional and panel tests of the law for a sample of
HYPOTHESES
443 Japanese manufacturing firms between 1980-1996.
In contrast to stochastic models based on Gibrat’s
They also conclude that the law should be rejected for
Law, learning models emphasize the role of the learning
Japanese manufacturing over the period and suggest that
process in explaining firm growth (e.g., Penrose, 1959;
the cross sectional estimate of the annual growth on size
Jovanovic, 1982; Geroski and Mazzucato, 2002). One may
may overstate significantly the true value of the
argue that large firms have wider range of information
parameter, favoring the estimate of the panel test.
sources and methods of acquiring knowledge and thus
While there have been enormous empirical works on
have higher level of knowledge. However, this does not
the scale and age effects on firm growth focusing on
necessarily imply that large firms learn faster.８ In fact,
domestic firms, there has been almost no previous
there is a tendency for an increasing firm size to dilute
research on how size, age, and ownership structure
the ability of a manager to catch information and solve
affect the growth of an affiliate in a host country. To
problems decisively. Further, as size increases, the
date, Blonigen and Tomlin (2001) have examined the
manager’s delegation of tasks to committees or staffs
growth of Japanese manufacturing affiliates in the US. In
makes distortion in the learning process likely. This
line with previous studies, they also provide evidence on
phenomenon may be considered as an outcome of the
the inverse firm size-growth and firm age-growth
absorptive capacity of the firm indicated by firm size
relationships, which are robust and consistent results
which limit or constraint the ability of firms to learn.
Hypothesis 1: Smaller foreign affiliates are more
both for acquired and greenfield establishments. They
likely to grow faster than larger foreign affiliates.
point out that the effects of joint ownership with a
domestic firm are at two extremes. In a sense that an
As discussed in the previous section, the firm growth-
enterprise can begin as a more experienced firm through
age relationship has also become an interest in the field
partnership with a domestic firm, it will experience
of firm dynamics. Strong arguments support the view
lower growth and/or the learning effect on growth will
that older firms are more likely than young firms to
not be as pronounced. On the other hand, joint venture
achieve lower performance on average (Jovanovic, 1982;
activity may facilitate the ability of the enterprise to
Dunne and Hughes, 1994). According to Jovanovic’s
learn and grow more quickly in the market. However,
model, the firm’s learning over time follows a Bayesian
using cross sectional data, they find that there is no
learning process, implying that the firm’s output level
significant difference between joint ventures and other
converges to its optimal state over time. Older firms are
greenfield investments with respect to the effect on plant
more likely to be close to convergence and thus,
growth.
experience lower growth. Further, older firms suffer
In summary, there exist three issues that concern us:
from ossification of their routines, non-learning
the ownership, scale and age effects on the growth of
processes, blindness and conservatism, which cause poor
foreign affiliates in a host country. We build our
performance and decline (Boeker, 1997; Szulanski, 1996).
Hypothesis 2: Younger foreign affiliates are more
hypotheses based on the foregoing arguments and
likely to grow faster than older foreign affiliates.
extend the model of firm growth by showing how scale
and age effects on growth vary with ownership
When entering a foreign market, investors frequently
structure, and controlling for unobservable factors that
have the option to own 100%, majority or minority shares
may be significant determinants of foreign affiliate
of an affiliate based in a host country. These alternatives
growth.
８ If one assumes that large firms tend to have high
７ Other recent studies also indicate the effect of the
R&D investments that help them acquire new
intensiveness of a firm’s R&D on its growth (e.g.,
knowledge, there may be positive relation between
Cohen, Levin, and Mowery; 1987 and Del Monte and
firm size and knowledge stock growth. However, the
Papagni; 2003). Here, it is not examined because of
unavailability of data on R&D investments limits our
limited availability of data.
ability to explore this issue.
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原 著
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
imply varying levels of control and commitment as well
are based on a 3-year unbalanced panel data set for 500
as limits and opportunities. A common motivation for
foreign-affiliated firms in the manufacturing sector of
finding a local partner is the need to acquire new assets
Japan throughout the period 1991-2000, producing a total
that are likely to be subject to market inefficiencies,
of 790 samples.９ The primary data source is the 1992,
making the cost of market-based exchange prohibitive
1995, 1998 and 2001 Affiliates and Offices of Foreign
(Delios and Beamish, 1999). Moreover, under conditions
Corporations in Japan, which is a survey published
of uncertainty and lack of knowledge, internationalizing
annually by the Nihon Keizai Shimbun Inc. 10 The
firms are subject to the liability of foreignness (Zaheer,
industry data are from the Basic Survey of Japanese
1995). Joint venturing offers them the opportunity to
Business Structure and Activities, conducted annually
make use of market-specific capabilities of joint venture
by the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI).
partners and offers the prospect of generating knowledge
The scope of this survey covers enterprises with 50 or
that could be valuable in their performance. In line with
more employees and whose paid-up capital or investment
this argument, Youssef and Hoshino (2003) indicate that
fund is over ¥30 million, whose operation falls under the
the local assets acquired by firms from their local
mining, manufacturing, and wholesale and retail trade,
partners will consequently influence the growth of these
and eating and drinking places (excluding “Other eating
firms. Nevertheless, the beneficial effects of local
and drinking places”). Financial data are all deflated
ownership may vary across foreign firms. For instance,
using the overall wholesale price index obtained from the
larger foreign affiliates which usually possess vital assets
Bank of Japan.
that consequently make them more capable of allocating
intensive investments in intangibles may not consider
DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS
local presence beneficial or important to their
Table 1 shows the 1991-2000 growth of foreign
performance as smaller affiliates do. Moreover, the
manufacturing affiliates by size and age.11 In total, the
advantages associated with local ownership may be more
youngest (less than 7-year old) and the smallest (less than
concentrated in the early years of operation of foreign
20 employees) categories both have the highest average
affiliates since they are more resource-constrained and
growth rate of 4.29% and 5.75%, respectively; the oldest
more lacking in relevant knowledge about the market at
category (more than 32-year old) and the fourth size
this stage. Thus younger foreign affiliates may benefit
category (from 100 to 299 employees) on the other hand,
more than older foreign affiliates.
have the lowest average growth rate, -1.72% and -1.33%,
Hypothesis 3: Establishing a joint venture with a
respectively. These observations suggest that the
domestic firm has beneficial effect on the foreign
younger and the smaller (the older and larger) the foreign
affiliate growth. However, this beneficial effect
firm is the more (less) likely for this firm to have higher
decreases with the size and age of the foreign
or positive growth rates.
affiliate.
10 This survey was first published in 1992 and there is
DATA
no data available for years after 2000. This survey
includes various types of foreign-affiliated firms such
The descriptive and empirical analyses of this paper
as affiliates owned by a foreign investor, government
or group, joint ventures, branches, offices, agencies
９ The period analyzed covers the period after all
manufacturing investments were liberalized in Japan,
and subsidiaries of a foreign affiliate in all industries.
i.e., 100% foreign ownership was allowed. Hence,
11 Growth is the average annual growth rate of
results on foreign ownership in this paper are not
employment, measured at 3-year interval so that
subject to ownership restrictions. Further, the Japan’s
growth reported for 1991 is the 1991-1994 average
economic downturn as revealed by its negative real
annual growth and so on. Size is measured by the
GDP growth rate (-1.1%) in 1998 is assumed to be
average number of employees. Age is the number of
reflected in the 1997-2000 growth rates of foreign-
years in business since establishment.
affiliated firms.
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Growth and Ownership: Evidence from Foreign Manufacturing Affiliates in Japan
Table 1. Average growth（%）of foreign manufacturing affiliates in Japan, by size and age
To observe the dynamic growth behavior of the same
period. In Table 3, we present the characteristics
foreign affiliate over time, which is not captured in the
following their transition pattern and group foreign
preceding analyses, we show the transition pattern of
affiliates into three based on their transition pattern for
foreign firms in Japan as determined by their size
brevity: Group A represents foreign firms that moved to
throughout the period of 1991-2000 in Table 2. The
higher quartiles (i.e., experienced an increase in scale
quartiles represent the percentile ranking of a foreign
position); Group B those that remained in the same
firm’s scale: Quartile I as the lowest 25% and Quartile IV
quartile (i.e., remained in the same scale position); and
as the highest 25%. The quartiles in horizontal are for
Group C those that moved to lower quartiles (i.e.,
the initial period; the quartiles in vertical are for the final
experienced a decrease in scale position).
Table 2. Transition pattern of foreign manufacturing affiliates in Japan, by size
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原 著
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
Table 3. Characteristics of foreign manufacturing affiliates in Japan following their transition
pattern, by size
In regard to the respective characteristics of each
group, the main findings are as follows. First, foreign
firms that moved to higher scale position were relatively
be further tested empirically in the following section.
METHODOLOGY
smaller to those remained in their scale position and
younger to all other foreign firms; and also they had
The estimating equation corresponds to the following
form:
remarkable average growth rate ranging from 26 to 46%.
Second, those that moved to lower quartiles are the
（1）
oldest and have an average growth rate of -32.53%. Also,
they have relatively higher foreign equity ownership (i.e.,
less domestic equity ownership) than those in Group A
where d is the number of interval years between the
and B. Third, foreign affiliates that remained in their
initial year and ending year of observation (i.e., lags); and
scale position are the largest and had negative average
Ψit is the random error term.12 For comparability of
growth rate between 1997 and 2000. Finally, foreign
results with those in previous empirical works (e.g.,
affiliates that had downsizing in 1994-1997 are mostly
Evans, 1987, Blonigen and Tomlin, 2001), Growth rate＝
wholly foreign-owned firms.
Ln(Size)it−Ln(Size)it-d/d, where Ln(Size) is measured
To summarize, the findings from the transition pattern
as log of employment; and Ln(Age) is measured as log of
of foreign affiliates are consistent with those
age (i.e., number of years of the foreign affiliate’s
observations drawn from Table 1. That is, the younger
business operation).13 The use of employment as proxy
and the smaller (the older and larger) a foreign affiliate is
for firm size is assumed to be more appropriate in this
the more (less) likely for this foreign affiliate to have
higher or positive growth rates; and joint-ventured
13 A notable statistical problem in the model is that
foreign affiliates reveal better growth performance than
Ln(Size) may be an endogenous variable, which may
wholly foreign-owned affiliates. These descriptive
lead to biased results in an OLS regression. To test the
statistics support the hypotheses of this paper that will
null hypothesis that Ln(Size) is actually exogenous,
the endogeneity test suggested by Wooldridge (2001) is
12 Kumar (1985) has noted that a smaller d yields higher
performed. The residuals (τit) from the reduced form
persistency growth rates and so greater probability of
regression of Ln(Size) on all exogenous variables are
inconsistency. Conversely, a larger d yields smaller
first estimated and then included in the estimation of
serial correlation in growth and less unreliable
equation (1). The coefficient of τit is found to be
estimates. Here, d is equal to 3 which controls for
insignificant, suggesting that Ln(Size) is exogenous.
possible serial correlation.
Thus endogeneity is not an issue in the model.
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Growth and Ownership: Evidence from Foreign Manufacturing Affiliates in Japan
paper since employment-based measures apply for
term,φt, varies across time but is constant across foreign
resource and knowledge-based views of the firm
affiliates (i.e., time-fixed effect). This will be estimated
(Penrose, 1959; Kogut and Zander, 1992). In addition,
using year dummies. The third part on the other hand,
although sales or output is relatively insensitive to
varies unsystematically across time and affiliates.
capital intensity and degree of integration, it is sensitive
Another remaining issue is whetherνi is correlated with
to inflation and currency. Dshare is domestic ownership
independent variables or not. One can use either fixed
share. Dshare*Ln(Size) and Dshare*Ln(Age) are
effect or random effect model for estimation. The former
interaction terms of domestic ownership share with size
allows for such a correlation, which is more likely to
occur; the latter assumes thatνi is uncorrelated with
and age, respectively.
We controlled for the environmental conditions by
independent variables. In order to determine which
including industry factors such as industry employment
estimation method yields efficient results, we perform
growth and profitability, which is deflated using the
the Hausmanχ2 specification test for all estimations.
overall wholesale price index obtained from the Bank of
It has been suggested that the true firm growth
Japan. These industry variables will control for the
specification is not linear but of a higher order (Evans,
changing conditions of the industry in which a foreign
1987). Therefore, estimations with a specification that
affiliate is located.
includes squared terms for size and age for both are also
To capture omitted variables in the model, the error
analyzed. In addition, industry dummies for OLS
structure for the disturbance term is specified as follows:
estimation are also included in the regression models.
The summary statistics of all variables is reported in
（2）
Table 3.
where ηit is assumed to be uncorrelated with the
14 The null hypothesis of no firm-fixed effects is tested
independent variables. The first term of the
against the alternate that there are firm-fixed effects
decomposition,νi , varies across foreign affiliates but is
using F-test. The estimated F-test value is reported in
constant across time (i.e., firm-fixed effect).14 The second
the table of regression results.
Table 4. Descriptive statistics of variables
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原 著
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
Further, as Mansfield (1962) and later Sutton (1997)
and medium-scaled, and large-scaled samples, joint
point out, the discrepancy in conclusions about the
ventures, and wholly-owned samples, respectively. We
validity of Gibrat’s Law emanates from using three
also estimate the model using pooled OLS and random
different types of sample of firms—all firms, only
effects model.16 In terms of goodness of fit, the estimated
surviving firms, and only large firms. To ensure that the
R2s are more than 4 times higher in all cases of fixed
results in this paper are not slanted towards any one of
effect estimations than pooled OLS estimations. The F-
these, the growth model is estimated using different
tests consistently reject the null hypothesis that the
group of samples such as all samples; joint ventured and
effect of firm-fixed effect,νi , is equal to zero at the 1%
wholly-owned foreign firms; small- and medium-scale,
significance level. These suggest that the fixed effects
and large scale foreign firms. Through this, sample
model performs better than the OLS model and the
selection bias is observed. 15 That is, when the
omission of firm-fixed effects biases the OLS results.
consequences of not obtaining a high growth opportunity
Also, the Hausman χ2-test statistics reported in the
differ systematically between large, and small and
table reject the null hypothesis that random effects
medium foreign firms in terms of the likelihood of
estimator is efficient at the 1% significance level and
survival, the size effect on growth patterns across
thus support the fixed effect model in all cases. Hence,
different samples should vary, i.e., Gibrat’s law will tend
we only report the results of fixed effects estimations.17
to hold for large firms but not for small and medium
In regard to estimation results for full sample (Models
firms, and suggests that sample bias may be an issue in
1 and 2), the negative coefficient on Ln(Size) and positive
this paper.
coefficient on Ln(Size squared) indicate that growth is
convex in size—foreign affiliate growth initially
EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS
decreases with size but then flattens out as size
Table 5 reports the fixed effects estimation results of
increases. The nonlinearity in the relationship between
specifications of the growth model for full sample, small-
age and growth is also supported as the significantly
negative coefficient on Ln(Age) and positive coefficient
15 In estimating the effects of any variable on the
growth of affiliates, a critical problem is that for
computing a growth rate, only surviving firms can be
used for observation. Doms, Dunne and Roberts (1995)
and Hall (1987) use Heckman’s two step estimation
procedure to control this sample selection bias. In this
paper however, the fact that an affiliate is not in the
dataset in t+d may mean several things. It may have
failed; it may have merged with or acquired by another
firm; it may have voluntarily dissolved itself (i.e.,
refused to respond to the survey). Since the survey
used is not mandatory and does not provide
information on survival or dissolution, the latter
reason seems to be to a greater extent, which will lead
to “false dissolution” of affiliates in a survival analysis.
16 In pooled OLS estimations, heteroskedasticity is
controlled using White-type standard errors and
including industry dummies in regressions. Industry
dummies are found to be insignificant in all OLS
specifications. Although their inclusion remedies the
heteroskedasticity in the model as indicated by a
White test of heteroskedasticity, the F-test of the null
hypothesis that there is no difference in growth
patterns across industries cannot be rejected.
on Ln(Age squared) indicate, suggesting that the effect
of increasing age weakens as foreign affiliates get older.
The positive and significant coefficient on domestic
ownership supports our hypothesis, indicating that
domestic ownership promotes affiliate growth. However,
the
significant
and
negative
coefficient
on
Dshare*Ln(Size) suggests that the extent of increasing
effect of local ownership on growth decreases with the
size of the foreign affiliate. In the other dimension, the
negative scale effect on growth escalates with local
ownership percentage. Substantively, these results
suggest that local ownership is particularly beneficial to
smaller foreign affiliates, and that it is less beneficial to
foreign affiliates with larger size.
Although Year 1997 is found to be significant only
when industry variables such as industry profitability
and employment growth are included in the fixed effect
estimation, an F-test of the hypothesis that the effects of
Year 1994 and Year 1997 on growth are equal is rejected
17 The pooled OLS and random effects estimation
results are available upon request.
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Growth and Ownership: Evidence from Foreign Manufacturing Affiliates in Japan
Table 5. Fixed effects estimation of the determinants of foreign manufacturing affiliate growth in Japan
at the 5% significance level. The negative sign of the
smaller. Age is also found to be insignificant for large
coefficient on Year 1997 suggests that there was a
foreign affiliates, indicating that growth does not vary
decreasing overall trend in the growth of foreign
with age among large foreign affiliates.
affiliates in 1997 as compared to the trend in 1991 (the
Further, we find that joint venturing with a local
benchmark year). Industry variables on the other hand,
partner plays a significant role only for the growth of
are found to be insignificant. Thus, the growth of foreign
small- and medium-scaled foreign affiliates and not for
affiliates in Japan may be more likely to be affected by the
large foreign affiliates. The estimated result on Year 1997
overall economic trend rather than changing conditions
is also noteworthy. In oppose to the insignificant
in their respective industry locations such as industry
coefficient on Year 1997 for small and medium foreign
growth and profitability.
affiliates, it is negatively significant for large foreign
Turning to estimation results based on sample
affiliates suggesting that large foreign affiliates
censoring, the results for small and medium foreign
experienced a decreasing trend in growth between 1997
affiliates (with employees no more than 300), and large
and 2000.18
affiliates (with more than 300 employees) are first
compared (Models 3~6). In the case of small and medium
foreign affiliates, all the estimated coefficients have
consistent signs with that of full sample’s results. The
estimates for large foreign affiliates on the other hand,
show differences from earlier results. The quadratic
term for size is no longer significant, suggesting that size
has a linear relationship with growth across large
foreign affiliates. Comparing the magnitudes of size
effects, that of large foreign affiliates is found to be
18 This result may serve as supporting evidence to the
theory of Ghemawat and Nalebuff (1990) which says
that large firm acts as a kind of “Stackelberg leader”
that absorbs the general shocks in demand. They
predict that in declining industries the largest firms
will downsize first for two reasons: (1) they recognize
that their production has the largest effect on price
levels; and (2) they recognize that given the anticipated
decline in demand, smaller firms will be able to
produce profitability for a longer time.
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原 著
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
The estimated results for Models 7~10 show that
domestic ownership share is less beneficial to larger
differences in ownership structure across affiliates are
affiliates. Aside from economies of scale, another
indeed related to growth differentials. The estimated size
explanation to the plausibility of this finding is given that
effect for the joint ventures is larger than that for the
two or more parent firms of different origins are in
wholly-owned. This shows that the former experiences
control of a joint venture, the beneficial effect of
more decrease in their growth when their size increases
domestic ownership is conditioned on cooperation and
than the latter does. Although the results on quadratic
compromise between two managements, which may be
term of age are likewise insignificant across the two
required to a greater extent in large affiliates, unlike in a
ownership structures, the age effect turns to be positive
sole management of wholly-owned affiliates. This may
for joint ventured foreign affiliates while negative for
imply that there are more growth distortions
wholly foreign-owned affiliates. It is also clear that
accompanied by increasing size in joint-ventured
differences in the percentage of domestic ownership in
affiliates than in wholly-owned affiliates
joint ventures are significantly related to differences in
In regard to the effect of age on growth, the estimated
their growth patterns. The estimated positive
coefficients differ not only in magnitude but also in signs
coefficients on local ownership, and negative coefficients
across samples. While the results for large and wholly-
on the interactions terms of local ownership with size
owned affiliates are similar to those found by previous
and age are all significant and suggest that the
studies of mainly domestic-owned firms, those for small
increasing effect of domestic ownership on growth
and joint-venture affiliates reveal contrasting findings. In
shrinks with the size and age of joint-ventures.
the former, growth decreases with age while increases at
Interestingly, industry variables and Year 1997 are only
a diminishing rate with age in the latter. Based on these
found to be statistically significant for joint ventures,
results, it seems that large and wholly-owned affiliates
which may suggest that joint ventures are more likely to
are less growth-constrained than small and joint-
be affected by external factors than wholly foreign-
ventured affiliates in their early years of operation. Thus,
owned affiliates.
it is desirable to identify the factors hampering the
growth of small foreign affiliates and joint-venture
CONCLUSION
affiliates, and provide them further assistance especially
Considering the rising prominence of foreign-affiliated
in their early years of operation as these factors may
firms in Japan, we investigate the growth behavior of
result in their withdrawal. Moreover, the negative
foreign-affiliated firms in the manufacturing sector of the
coefficient on the interaction term of age with domestic
country. We estimate the growth model separately by
ownership suggests that the increasing effect of joint
affiliate size and ownership structure using panel data
venture on growth shrinks with age of foreign affiliates.
estimations. One key objective of this paper is to examine
This supports our hypothesis that as foreign affiliates
whether ownership structure has an impact on the
age, they benefit less from joint ventures since their
growth behavior of foreign affiliated firms. This is a
liability to foreignness diminishes over time.
vitally important issue since as observed in the
The results in this paper show that ownership
descriptive analysis, foreign investors in Japan use joint
structure leads us to observe differentials in growth
ventures to a great extent. Most of the estimated
behavior among foreign firms already operating in Japan
coefficients of the variables for full sample have
even after controlling for unobserved heterogeneity in
theoretically predicted signs and are highly significant
time-invariant factors. The estimates of the effect of
determinants of affiliate growth. Firm size, in support to
domestic ownership share on affiliate growth indicate
the learning model, is found to be negatively related to
the substantial role of joint venturing in small and
the growth of foreign affiliates. Further, the implication
medium affiliates, which is not observed among large
of size effect on ownership structure is that smaller joint-
affiliates. Noting that Gibrat’s Law, i.e., firm growth is
venture foreign affiliates are more likely to gain from
independent of firm size fails to hold, the size, age and
partnering with a local firm than larger joint-ventured
ownership structure of foreign-affiliated firms appear to
foreign affiliates. This confirms the proposition that
be important considerations in determining long-term
−220−
Growth and Ownership: Evidence from Foreign Manufacturing Affiliates in Japan
Economics, 105, 167-186.
growth potential from a policy perspective. Hence, our
findings favor differential in growth promoting policies
Goddard, J., Wilson, J., Blandon, P., 2002. “Panel Tests of
Gilbrat’s Law for Japanese Manufacturing.”
or aids based on the said factors.
International Journal of Industrial Organization,
We expect that the aforementioned findings in this
20, 415-433.
paper have raised vital issues about foreign-affiliated
firms, particularly in Japan, as the growth performance
Green, W. H., 2000, Econometric Analysis 4 th Edn.
of foreign firms, by definition, leads to opportunities for
(Prentice Hall, NJ).
the growth of foreign investments. In other words, aside
Hall, B.H., 1987. “The relationship between firm size and
from the economic contributions of existing foreign
firm growth in the US manufacturing sector”, The
Journal of Industrial Economics, 35, 583-606.
firms, they serve as benchmark for other foreign
investors planning to establish a business in Japan.
Hart, P. E. and Oulton, N., 1996, “Growth and size of
firms”, The Economic Journal, 106, 1242-1252.
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Kogut, B. and Zander, U., 1992, “Knowledge of the firm,
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Nihon Keizai Shimbun Inc. (NIKKEI), 1992, 1995, 1997.
Zai Nichi Gaishikei Kigyou Fairu (Affiliates and
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growth”, Journal of Political Economy, 95, 657-674.
Shanmugam, K.R. and Bhaduri, S.N., 2002. “Size, age and
Geroski, P.A., 1995. “What do we know about entry?”
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Szulanski, G., 1996. “Exploring Internal Stickiness:
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原 著
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
Impediments to the Transfer of Best Practice within
About Myself:
the Firm.” Strategic Management Journal, 17, 27-
Lailani L. Alcantara is a Ph.D. student in Social Systems
43.
and Management at the University of Tsukuba. Her
Wooldrige, J., 2002. Econometric Analysis of Cross
Section and Panel Data (MIT Press, Cambridge).
research interest includes organizational relationships,
strategic alliances and international joint venturing.
Yasuo Hoshino, 1997. Kigyo Koudou to Sosiki Dougaku
(Business Behavior and Organizational Dynamics)
Dr. Yasuo Hoshino
(Hakuto Shobou, Tokyo).
Youssef, K.B. and Hoshino, Y., 2003. “The Choice between
Joint Ventures and Wholly Owned Subsidiaries: The
Professor of Finance
and Management
case of Japanese Direct Investment in Europe,”
Japanese Journal of Administrative Science, 17(1),
Department of Social Systems
and Management
31-46.
Zaheer, S., 1995. “Overcoming the liability of foreignness”,
Graduate School of Systems
and Information Engineering
Academy of Management Journal, 38, 341-363.
（Received December 10, 2004 Accepted April 22, 2005）
The University of Tsukuba
E-mail: [email protected]
Finishing the Doctoral Credit Course of Management at
Lailani Laynesa Alcantara
the Graduate School of Economics, The University of
Graduate School of Systems and
Associate Professor, School of Business, Toyo University,
Tokyo, 1975.
Information Engineering,
-1984.
University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1,
Professor，School of Economics, Nagoya City University-
Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-
1994.
8573 Japan
Professor, University of Tsukuba 1994 to present.
E-mail: [email protected]
Books
Education:
1998~2002
College of International Studies,
Kigyo Koudou to Soshiki Dougaku (Business Behavior
and Organizational Dynamics), Hakuto Shobo
International Development, University of Tsukuba
2002~2004
Master’s Program in Management and
1977,1990, (in Japanese)
Kigyo Gappei no Keiryou Bunseki (Quantitative Analysis
Public Policy, MBA, University of Tsukuba
2004~present
of Corporate Mergers), Hakuto Shobo 1981,1990, (in
Graduate School of Systems and
Information Engineering, Doctoral Program in Social
Japanese)
Chuushou Kinyuu Kikan no Gappei Bunseki (Merger
Systems and Management, University of Tsukuba
Analysis of Small and Medium-sized Financial
Paper Presentations:
Institutions), Taga Shuppan 1992, (in Japanese)
Alcantara, L. L. and Hoshino, Y., “Multinational
The Anatomy of Japanese Business (with Kazuo Sato),
Ownership and Firm Growth: Empirical Evidence
Croom Helm/Sharp Inc. 1984
from Foreign Affiliates in Japan”, 2004 Hawaii
Articles
International Conference on Business June 21-24,
Japan and the World Economy, Journal of Business
2004. Honolulu, Hawaii.
Finance and Accounting, Management International
Alcantara, L. L. and Hoshino, Y., “Multinational
Review, International Review of Economics and
Ownership and Firm Growth: Empirical Evidence
Business, Review of Pacific Basin Financial Markets and
from Foreign Affiliates in Japan”, EWC/EWCA 2004
Policies, Journal of Financial Management and Analysis,
Tokyo International Conference “New Challenges
The Developing Economy, Journal of Business
for Building an Asia Pacific Community” August 2-4,
Management, Japan Journal of Finance, JJAS, etc.
2004. Tokyo, Japan.
−222−
Japanese Journal of Administrative Science
Volume18, No.3, 2005, 223-234.
原 著
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号, 2005, 223−234.
製薬企業の研究者レベルにおける研究成果達成の条件：
内外コラボレーションを通じたナレッジ獲得の効果＊
慶應義塾大学
浅 川 和 宏・中 村
洋＃
External and Internal Collaboration as the Sources of R&D Performance:
An Empirical Investigation of R&D Researchers in the Pharmaceutical Firms
Kazuhiro ASAKAWA and Hiroshi NAKAMURA
(Keio University)
While R&D performance of individual researchers working within firms is considered to
be influenced by the extent of their collaboration with the external research community
such as universities as well as their interaction with other intra-firm units, we still do not
know much about the mechanism under which different types of external/internal
collaboration affect their R&D performance. In this paper, we report the factors that
influence their R&D performance, with a particular focus on the balance between their
external and internal R&D collaboration. Based on data from 130 R&D researchers within
seven pharmaceutical firms, we tested our hypotheses on the impact of R&D collaboration
on their R&D performance. Setting individual researchers as the unit of analysis, this
study provides complementary insights into the research on the knowledge-based-view of
the firm which is usually discussed at the firm level. (134 words)
Keywords: External/internal collaboration, R&D performance, researchers, pharmaceutical
firms.
のところ個人の頭脳の営みといえる（Grant 1996）。こ
1. はじめに
れまでの戦略論においては，ナレッジ・ベースト・ビュ
最近のナレッジ・ベースト・ビューの考え方によれ
ば，ナレッジこそ企業の競争優位の源泉である（Winter
ーの議論における個人レベルのナレッジ吸収・活用によ
る効果は十分に注目されてこなかった。
1987; Nonaka & Takeuchi 1995）
。多くの研究が最近では
この点に注目し，本論では企業の研究所内で働く研究
この点に注目し，企業特有の知的資産としてのナレッジ
者が実際に内外の諸部門・機関との間でどのようなコラ
の蓄積とその活用について検討を重ねてきた。その一環
ボレーションを通じたナレッジの獲得を行うことが，研
として，知識集約的活動における外部ナレッジの獲得・
究者個人の研究成果達成に影響を及ぼすかについて検討
活用に焦点を当てた研究も台頭した（McEvily,
した。R&D外部依存がR&D成果に及ぼす影響に関する
2004）
。１
実証研究には企業レベルもしくはサブユニットレベル
このような試みは主に企業レベルもしくはサブユニッ
（研究所もしくはチーム単位）のものが多いが（Chiesa
トレベルにおいて行われている。しかしナレッジは究極
and Manzini 1998; Haour 1992; Iansiti 1998; Leonard-
Eisenhardt and Prescott
Barton 1995），本研究では分析のレベルをあくまで研究
＊ 本研究は平成16年度産業技術研究助成事業および医
者個人に置いた。その理由は「知識は個人に宿るもので，
組織の主な役割は知識創造ではなく知識の応用である」
療経済研究機構からの助成を受けた。
＃ 本稿に関する連絡先：〒223−8523 横浜市港北区日
としたGrant (1996) の考えに依拠している。またミクロ
吉本町2-1-1 慶應義塾大学大学院経営管理研究科 浅
的に研究者レベルの考察を行うことが，マクロ的な組織
川和宏（[email protected]）
。
レベルの考察にも役立つと考える。
本論では，主に次のような論点が検討されている。つ
１ 本論文では「ナレッジ」，「知識」の両方を同義語と
して文脈に応じ適宜使用している。
まり，企業内研究所の研究者の研究成果を達成するため
−223−
原 著
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
には，大学との交流・学会活動を通じたナレッジの獲得
を通じた外部ナレッジ獲得のもたらす効果は大きいと考
や社内他のR&D部門との交流がいかなる条件の下で効
えられる。主要ナレッジは人の移動を介して移転すると
果的か，大学・学会との交流は彼 (女) らの所属する研究
考えられるからである(Almeida and Kogut 1999)。R&D
チームが外部からのアイディアにオープンである場合と
の研究成果をあげるためには，なによりも異質で最先端
そうでない場合でその効果に差があるのか，さらには彼
の知識を常に獲得することが求められる。よって，次の
(女) らの社内他部門との交流を通じた企業方針などの社
仮説が立てられる。
内情報の入手が重要なのか。こうした論点は，企業内
仮説1：製薬企業の研究所内の研究者の研究成果達成
R&D研究者が科学研究の普遍性と企業内研究の固有性
のためには，彼 (女) らが大学との交流や学会活動など
との間でいかにバランスをとっていくかを意味してい
を通じて外部ナレッジを獲得することが重要な効果を
る。本研究では特に最近のゲノム領域における発展のめ
及ぼす。
ざましい状況に直面している製薬企業を取り上げてい
② 社内各部門からの情報の有用性
る。
本論の構成は以下の通りである。第2節では理論的フ
その一方で，研究者といえども民間企業の研究所に籍
レームワークを提示し，社外研究コミュニティーや社内
を置く研究者の場合，大学に所属する研究者とはその研
各部門からのナレッジ獲得の努力が研究者個人の研究成
究の性格が多少なりとも異なる。基礎研究者であっても，
果に与える直接・間接的影響に関する仮説を導出する。
その研究成果が何らかの形で企業活動と連動しているこ
第3節ではデータと方法論を要約し，第4節で分析結果を
とが要求される。そのため，研究者の研究成果を測る尺
紹介するとともにその含意について論じる。そして第5
度も企業活動への将来的貢献と無関係ではありえない。
節ではそれらを踏まえて結論を述べる。
つまり，研究成果が直接・間接的に活用されるであろう
「応用文脈（application context）
」
（Iansiti 1998）を意識
2. 理論フレームワーク
しているか否かでその成果が分かれると考えられる。そ
① 外部ナレッジの効果
うした文脈は，たぶんに明文化されていない暗黙の了解
研究者の研究成果を達成するうえで，大学との交流や
もしくは組織としての方向性である場合が多い。こうし
学会活動等を通じ外部の最先端知識を確保することの重
た「暗黙知」（tacit knowledge）は日ごろ社内各部門の
要性はよく指摘されている（中村・浅川2004）。バイオ
人々との接触・交流を経て得られる。
テクノロジーに代表される最先端分野の研究ほど重要知
内部との接触が密な場合，どうしても情報のみならず
識は社内研究所ではなく社外研究コミュニティーとのネ
考え方，発想法まで内部コミュニティーからの影響を強
ットワーク上に点在する場合が多い（Powell et al. 1996;
く受ける。密度の高いネットワークの一員として対内的
Liebeskind et al. 1996; Owen-Smith and Powell 2004）。
関係性を強く維持する利点は，企業内の社会的資本（ソ
だからこそ社外の知識を取り込むことの重要性がこれま
ーシャル・キャピタル）を共有しそれをベースに内部の
でにも特に研究所レベルにおいて指摘されてきた。すな
知識・ノウハウから最新情報までを入手することが可能
わち，製薬企業による対外的研究機関との交流がその研
な点である（Nahapiet and Ghoshal 1998）。しかしその
究所のR&D成果に貢献するという結果である（浅川・
反面，内部との接触が過密すぎると，その内容が冗長で，
中村2005）
。Liebeskind et al. (1996) はバイオ産業におけ
新規のナレッジがなかなか入手されないことが問題点と
るR&Dをとりあげ，主要ナレッジが製薬企業とバイオ
して指摘される（Hansen 1999; Uzzi 1997）
。いわゆるソ
ベンチャー，大学などとのネットワーク内にあり，コア
ーシャル・キャピタルの負の側面である（Gargiulo and
となる科学者がそのナレッジの取り込みと活用に主要な
Benassi 2000）。したがって，そうした潜在的マイナス
役割を演じていることを明らかにした。また同様にパウ
面を認識しつつも，ここでは以下の仮説を提示する。
エルらも，バイオのR&Dにおいて，現地の科学コミュ
仮説2：製薬企業の研究所内の研究者の研究成果達成
ニティーとの間での知的交流がR&D成果にきわめて重
のためには，彼(女)らが社内各部門との対内的交流を
要であるということを論じている（Powell et al. 1996;
通じて社内特有のナレッジを獲得することが重要な効
Owen-Smith and Powell 2004）。また，研究所レベルに
果を及ぼす。
おいては，製薬企業による対外的研究機関との交流がそ
の研究所のR&D成果に貢献するという結果も得られて
③ 研究チームの外部ナレッジに対するオープンさ
研究者が外部ナレッジにアクセスすることは一般的に
いる（浅川・中村2005）
。
研究者個人レベルにおいても，外部とのネットワーク
は有効だとされる。しかし，その研究者が属する研究チ
−224−
製薬企業の研究者レベルにおける研究成果達成の条件：内外コラボレーションを通じたナレッジ獲得の効果
ームの雰囲気がもし外部ナレッジに対し閉鎖的であった
という。
なら，そのような外部ナレッジの獲得にも消極的となる
仮説4：製薬企業の研究所内の研究者の研究成果達成
だろう。さらに，チームにNIH症候群（not-invented-
のために彼 (女) らが大学などから外部知識を獲得・活
here syndrome）がはびこると，その構成メンバーであ
用することは，彼 (女) らが社内各部門との交流を通じ
る個人もあえて最新の外部知識を活用してまで成果をあ
て社内情報の獲得ができている場合に効果的となる。
げようというインセンティブが失われるだろう。よって，
外部ナレッジの獲得と活用が研究者の研究成果につなが
る条件として，その所属する研究チームが外部ナレッジ
に対しオープンな姿勢をとることがあげられる。イノベ
3. データと方法
3. 1. データと方法
定量データと定性データを分析に使用した。
ーションが辺境から発生することはしばしば指摘されて
いるが，組織の主要勢力により新たなイノベーションの
アンケート調査：
芽がつみとられることもまた知られている
我々は2003年に，国内製薬企業（日本企業ならびに外
（Christensen 2000）。個人の研究者とその所属チームの
資系企業）の日本におけるR&D拠点における研究者を
対象としたアンケート調査を行った。その結果，日系企
雰囲気との関係についても，同様のことが言えよう。
仮説3：製薬企業の研究所内の研究者の研究成果達成
のために彼 (女) らが大学などから外部知識を獲得・活
用することは，彼 (女) らの属する研究チームが外部ナ
レッジに対してオープンである場合に効果的となる。
④ 外部交流と内部交流とのバランス
業4社および外資系企業3社，計7社の日本国内研究所の
研究者130名からの回答を得た。日系企業の選定基準は，
売り上げ大手上位ランク順にアプローチし，協力を得ら
れたものを計上するという形をとった。外資系企業の選
定基準は，欧米各国の代表企業をなるべくサンプルに入
れる努力をし，結果的に独・スイス・米という代表的な
上でも述べた通り，企業内研究者の場合，純粋な科学
組み合わせとなった。
研究のみをやっているわけではない。そこには常に企業
各企業ともまず研究開発本部あるいはそれに匹敵する
経営の論理との接点がなんらかの意味で存在する。いか
部門の代表者（クラス）に調査を依頼し，趣旨を説明し
なる基礎的研究であっても，その成果が将来的に自社の
たうえで，社内担当窓口の方を通じて実際に基礎研究
製品開発につながることは暗黙の価値として認識されて
（医薬品探索）や（前）臨床試験などに従事する研究者
に質問票を配布した。依頼された方々全員が回答したた
いる。
その意味で，大学との交流や学会活動を活発に行い，
外部ナレッジを吸収することが研究成果向上に重要であ
め，回答率は100％となった。２
インタビュー調査によるトライアンギュレーション：
ったとしても，それをやればやるほど今度は社内部門の
インタビュー調査は，アンケート調査に先立ち，研究
考え，期待，情報などを意識することが肝心となる。つ
成果をあげるR&Dマネジメントの条件をさぐる意味で
まり，社内各部門の考え方に通じていることは，外部と
2001年から2002年にかけて行われた。在日大手製薬企業
の交流を行うこととセットでその有効性を発揮するとい
のべ21社および欧米製薬企業のべ12社におけるR&Dマ
える。こうした点はすでに上の②でも指摘されたが，こ
ネジャー各社一人ずつ対象に，内外コラボレーションが
こで強調される点は，外部との交流が活発化すればする
R&D成果に及ぼす影響を中心に質問した。そして，そ
ほど対内的交流も重要になるという相乗効果の意味であ
れに基づきアンケート調査の質問項目を形成した。また，
る。
アンケート調査データ分析後，各社ごとに機会を見て適
この点は，なにも社内情報がそこで創出される新たな
宜インタビューデータとの比較対照による実証結果のリ
知識の潜在的活用文脈となるということだけから重要と
アリティーチェックを著者自身が行った。つまり，同一
なるのではない。企業内研究所が独自の自律性をどの程
の研究設問に対し別の手法を用いて検討するトライアン
度保ち，全社的統制下にどの程度おかれるべきかといっ
ギュレーションを可能な限り試みた（Jick 1979）
。
た，いわゆるオートノミーとコントロールの議論とも関
連する（Behrman and Fisher 1980）。またAsakawa
（2001）は，いくら自由を求める研究者といえども，親
２ ただし，今回は高回答率確保のため，質問項目を必
会社の情報から遮断された過度の自律性を手にした状況
要最小限に絞ったので，年齢，勤続年数などの回答者
では不満足感をもつことを報告した。ある程度親会社と
属性が回答に与える影響までは考慮できなかった。今
情報的に結合されつつ自律性を与えられた状態が最適だ
後の課題としたい。
−225−
原 著
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
3. 2. 分析手法
そして，次の段落で列挙している各具体的項目に関し
本研究では順序ロジット分析と共分散構造分析を併用
て「あなたさまご自身が日ごろ以下の各機関から最先端
している。前者では研究者個人レベルにおける研究成果
の知識を獲得するよう，どの程度心がけておられますか」
の達成感をもたらす要因をより広範囲に検討し，後者に
と質問し，1（全くしていない）から5（かなりしている）
おいてはその内の特定要因のみを抽出し，より掘り下げ
までの5件法で答えてもらった。
た分析を試みている。
「大学・学会」（大学・学会からの知識獲得）を具体的
① 順序ロジット分析
に現わすものとして，「研究所の近くにある大学」，「国
従属変数
内の他地域にある大学」，
「海外にある大学」，
「社外の学
従属変数として研究者自身のR&D成果に関する達成
会等」からの知識獲得を含めた。そしてそれら4項目は1
感を問うた2つの5件法リッカート尺度を使用している
因子に収束した（信頼性尺度のCronbach’s αも0.74と許
容値を示す。また固有値2.30，累積率45.61%となった）
。
（以下それぞれ「Rの成果」
，
「医薬品成果」と略記）
。
＊「あなたさまのこれまでのご研究成果に関し，ご自身
の当初の目標に対しどの程度の達成感をお持ちでしょ
うか」
（Rの成果）
＊「あなたさまのご研究成果の貴社における医薬品開発
への貢献度についての，ご自身の達成感をお答えくだ
さい」
（医薬品成果）
「R&Dから」（R&D同僚からの知識獲得）を具体的に
現わすものとして，「研究所内の同僚」，「国内にある社
内の他の研究所の同僚」，
「海外にある社内の他の研究所
の同僚」
，
「研究開発本部のスタッフ」からの知識獲得を
含めた。そしてそれら4項目は1因子に収束した
(Cronbach’s αは許容値内で0.62，固有値1.91，累積率
38.02%となった)。
尺度は次の通り：1（さらに努力を要する），2（あと
もう少し），3（ほぼ期待通り），4（やや期待以上），5
「R&D以外から」（R&D以外の同僚からの知識獲得）
を具体的に現わすものとして，「生産部門のスタッフ」，
（期待以上）
。順序尺度だが厳密には間隔尺度とはいえず，
「マーケティング部門のスタッフ」，「本社のトップマネ
したがって順序ロジット回帰分析を行った。この手法は
ジメント」からの知識獲得を含めた。そしてそれら3項
多項ロジスティック分析と比してもパラメーターがより
目は1因子に収束した(Cronbach’s αは許容値内で0.73，
簡素（parsimonious）なうえ，従属変数である研究成果
固有値1.95，累積率47.81%となった)。
に対する評価レンジを反映させることができる
「オープンさ」
（外部ナレッジへのオープンさ）は「外
(McKelvey and Zavoina 1975; Chu and Anderson 1992)。
部からのアイディアに対しオープンである」，
「外部で発
独立変数
明・発見された技術・知識に対する拒否反応がある」
独立変数は理論フレームワークに基づいた確認型因子
（逆コーディング）の2項目が1因子に収束したものであ
分析を行なうことで抽出した。本研究では，仮説1に基
る（Cronbach’s αは許容値内で0.67，固有値1.51，累積
づき「大学・学会」からの知識獲得を独立変数として設
率50.83%となった）。なお，2つ目の項目は1つ目とは方
定した。また仮説2および4で検討する社内各部門からの
向が逆なので，逆コーディングを行った。
知識獲得に関しては，実証上の関心からさらにここでは
表1は因子測定尺度一覧である。なお，採用したモデル
「R&Dから」と「R&D以外から」に区分した。さらに仮
すべて多重共線性の問題はクリアした（VIFは最大1.2以
下）
。
説3に基づき「オープンさ」も含めた。
表1 因子測定尺度一覧
コントロール変数
た，回答者の担当する研究内容別に，医薬品探索=1，
日本企業と外資系企業のいずれのデータかを区別する
前臨床その他=0の対比変数を形成した。
目的で日本企業=1，外資=0の対比変数を形成した。ま
−226−
ここで扱った因子ならびに変数間の相関係数をまとめ
製薬企業の研究者レベルにおける研究成果達成の条件：内外コラボレーションを通じたナレッジ獲得の効果
たのが表2である。
表2 記述統計および相関係数
② 共分散構造分析
トップマネジメント」からの知識獲得をどの程度心がけ
上の順序ロジット回帰分析結果を踏まえ，さらに踏み
込んだ分析を行うために共分散構造分析を試みた。ここ
ているか（1：全くしていない〜5：かなりしている）の
5件法リッカート尺度により測定された。
では特に順序ロジット回帰において有意な効果が認めら
潜在変数「社内他部門」はR&D部門を除いた次の3観
れた因子に絞り，それらの因果関係をさらに詳細に検討
測変数，すなわち「x6:生産部門のスタッフ」，「x7:マー
している。すなわち，「大学・学会」との交流が果たし
ケティング部門のスタッフ」，「x8:本社のトップマネジ
て個人レベルにおける「R&D成果」に直接影響を及ぼ
メント」からの知識獲得をどの程度心がけているか
しているのか，それともR&Dやその他の「社内部門」
（1：全くしていない〜5：かなりしている）の5件法リッ
との交流が伴ってはじめて効果をもたらすのか，に絞っ
カート尺度により測定された。
最後に潜在変数「R&D成果」は上の①順序ロジット
た分析がここでの目的である。
潜在変数「大学・学会」は次の4観測変数，すなわち
分析における従属変数2つ（y1,y2）からなる。すなわち，
「x1:研究所近くの大学」，「x2:国内他地域にある大学」，
y1は「Rの成果」，y2は「医薬品成果」である（尺度の
「x3:海外の大学」
，
「x4:社外の学会等」からの知識獲得を
詳細については前項目を参照）
。
どの程度心がけているか（1：全くしていない〜5：かな
りしている）の5件法リッカート尺度により測定された。
潜在変数「社内各部門」は次の4観測変数，すなわち
「x5:研究開発本部のスタッフ」，「x6:生産部門のスタッ
4. 分析結果と考察
4. 1. 分析結果
① 外部ナレッジの効果
フ」，「x7:マーケティング部門のスタッフ」，「x8:本社の
一般に研究者の研究成果を達成するうえで大学との交
流や学会活動等を通じ外部の最先端知識を確保すること
４ 標準化された因子得点の平均値ゆえ０の値となる。
の重要性は定説化され，バイオテクノロジーなどの最先
−227−
原 著
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
端分野の研究ほどその傾向は強いとされる（Powell et
ば，研究者が単に外部の大学との交流や学会活動を通じ
al. 1996; Owen-Smith and Powell 2004）
。研究所レベルで
たナレッジ獲得のみでは個人の研究成果が達成されるに
のR&D成果を扱った先行研究でも，製薬企業による対
は十分とはいえないことが判明した。順序ロジット分析
外的研究機関との交流がそのR&D成果に貢献するとい
における2つの従属変数いずれにおいても，その直接効
果は統計的に有意水準には達していなかった（表3モデ
う結果がでている（浅川・中村2005）
。
しかし我々の個人レベルにおける実証研究結果によれ
ル1a及び2a参照）
。
表3 順序ロジット回帰モデル解析結果
よって，このことから，仮説1（すなわち製薬企業の
我々は，順序ロジット分析において，社内部門との交流
研究所内の研究者の研究成果達成のためには，彼(女)ら
を通じた知識獲得を大きく「R&D同僚からの知識獲得」
が大学との交流や学会活動を通じて外部ナレッジを獲得
と「R&D以外の同僚からの知識獲得」の二つに分け，
することが重要な効果を及ぼす）は支持されなかった。
それぞれの効果を検討した。その結果，通常考えられて
この点はこれまでの研究結果（たとえばPowell et al.
いるようなR&D同僚からの知識獲得（Powell et al 1996;
1996; Owen-Smith and Powell 2004）と対比しても大変
Almeida and Kogut 1999）は研究者個人の研究成果には
興味深い。以下の③，④においてさらに言及する。
有意な効果を及ぼしておらず，反対に通常あまり意識さ
② 社内各部門からの情報の有用性
れていないR&D以外の同僚からの知識獲得の効果が統
その一方で，民間企業の研究所に籍を置く研究者の場
計的にプラスの有意であった。この結果は2つの従属変
合，大学に所属する研究者とはその研究の性格が異なり，
数いずれにおいてもあてはまる（各p<0.01, p<0.001レ
その研究成果が何らかの形で企業活動と連動しているこ
ベル）
（表3参照）
。
したがって，仮説2（つまり製薬企業の研究所内の研
とが要求される。そのため，研究者の研究成果を測る尺
度も企業活動への将来的貢献と無関係ではありえない。
究者の研究成果達成のためには，彼 (女) らが社内各部門
−228−
製薬企業の研究者レベルにおける研究成果達成の条件：内外コラボレーションを通じたナレッジ獲得の効果
との対内的交流を通じて社内特有のナレッジを獲得する
が外部ナレッジに対してオープンである場合に効果的と
ことが重要な効果を及ぼす）は，「R&D以外の同僚から
なる）は統計的に支持された。
の知識獲得」について支持されたが，「R&D同僚からの
④ 外部交流と内部交流とのバランス
上でも述べた通り（①での結果），研究者が単に外部
知識獲得」に関しては支持されなかった。
この後半の結果も通常考えられる結果とは乖離してお
の大学との交流や学会活動を通じてナレッジ獲得しただ
り興味深い。これは研究に必要な知識が社外からにとど
けでは個人の研究成果が達成されるには十分とはいえな
まらないことを示しているともいえよう。またR&D同
いことが判明した。それはなぜか。③では，所属チーム
僚とその他の同僚の両者を含めた交流こそが効果的とい
の外部ナレッジへのオープンさが鍵であることがわかっ
える。この点については，上の①の結果とあわせてさら
たが，ここではもうひとつの解釈を行った。
共分散構造分析の結果，研究者が大学・学会からの知
に④において検討している（図1参照）
。
③ 研究チームの外部ナレッジに対するオープンさ
識獲得を熱心に行うこと自体は直接研究成果の達成には
研究者が外部ナレッジにアクセスすることは一般的に
効果を及ぼしているとはいえないが，そうした対外的活
は有効だとされるが，その条件として，その所属する研
動を通じたナレッジの獲得とあわせて，彼 (女) らが社内
究チームが外部ナレッジに対しオープンであることが想
各部門との交流を通じた社内ナレッジの獲得を行った場
定された。実際に，分析結果ではこの点が支持された。
合，研究成果達成に貢献することが判明した。
つまり，①でも要約した通り，研究者が単に外部の大
つまり，大学・学会からの知識獲得自体は研究者の研
学との交流や学会活動を通じてナレッジ獲得をしただけ
究成果に統計上有意な直接効果を与えていないが，社内
では個人の研究成果が達成されるには十分とはいえない
各部門（研究開発本部，生産部門，マーケティング部門，
ことが判明した（表3モデル1a及び2a参照）
。しかしその
本社トップマネジメント）からの知識獲得活動と組み合
一方で，その研究者が属する研究チームが外部知識に対
わさった場合の間接効果（すなわち大学・学会＊社内各
してオープンである場合には彼 (女) らが大学・学会から
部門）は統計上有意な正の影響が確認された（推定値
知識獲得することが研究成果達成に貢献することが判明
0.255=0.58*0.44, p<0.01）
（図1，表4a参照）
。このモデル
した（いずれのモデルの場合もp<0.05の水準で統計上有
は カ イ 2乗 =42.60, P=0.40, GFI=0.95, AGFI=0.91,
RMSEA=0.02と当てはまりが良い(AIC=92.60)。ちなみ
意）
（表3モデル1b及び2bにおける交差項を参照）
。
したがって，仮説3（製薬企業の研究所内の研究者の
に#でも取り上げられた研究チームの外部ナレッジへの
研究成果達成のために彼 (女) らが大学などから外部知識
オープンさは，本モデルでは研究者の大学・学会からの
を獲得・活用することは，彼 (女) らの属する研究チーム
知識獲得に正の影響を及ぼしていることがわかる(推定
値0.21, p=0.02)。
図1 共分散構造モデル1
−229−
原 著
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
表4a 共分散構造モデル1分析結果
同様に社内のR&D以外の部門（生産部門，マーケティ
RMSEA=0.03と当てはまりが良い（AIC= 81.26）
。３
ング部門，本社トップマネジメント）からの知識獲得活
動との組み合わせに限定した場合も，大学・学会からの
３ 社内各部門をR&D部門のみに限定した場合，同様に
知識獲得自体は研究者の研究成果に統計上有意な直接効
大学・学会＊社内R&D部門との間接効果は統計上有
果を与えていないが，間接効果（すなわち大学・学会＊
意な正の影響を及ぼすが（推定値0.60*0.37, p<0.10），
社内各部門）は統計上有意な正の影響が確認された(推
モデルの当てはまりがより弱くなった（カイ2乗＝
定値0.273=0.39*0.70, p＜0.01)（図2，表4b参照）
。このモ
48.14, p=0.03, GFI=0.93, AGFI=0.88, RMSEA=0.06;
デルもカイ2乗=35.26, p=0.32, GFI=0.95, AGFI=0.91,
AIC=94.14）
。
図2 共分散構造モデル2
−230−
製薬企業の研究者レベルにおける研究成果達成の条件：内外コラボレーションを通じたナレッジ獲得の効果
表4b 共分散構造モデル2分析結果
それはいったいなぜか。上でも述べた通り，企業内研
要性が強調されている（Powell et al. 1996; Liebeskind et
究者の場合，純粋な科学研究のみをやっているわけでは
al. 1996; Owen-Smith and Powell 2004）
。しかし，そうし
ない。そこには常に企業経営の論理との接点がなんらか
た埋め込み仮説が神話化し，社会的資産の負の側面に焦
の意味で存在する。いかなる基礎的研究であっても，そ
点を当てた一部の組織社会学的研究（Hansen 1999; Uzzi
の成果が将来的に自社の製品開発につながることは暗黙
1997; Gargiulo and Benassi 2000）を除き，埋め込みが
の価値として認識されている。その意味で，大学との交
R&D成果達成のための必要条件もしくは十分条件であ
流や学会活動を活発に行い，外部ナレッジを吸収するこ
るかについてのより注意深い考察が先行研究においては
とが研究成果向上に重要であったとしても，それをやれ
欠如している。
ばやるほど今度は社内部門の考え，期待，情報などを意
そこで本論では，そうしたギャップを埋めるべく，単
識することが肝心となる。つまり，社内各部門の考え方
なる外部への埋め込み自体は，必ずしも研究者が研究成
に通じていることは，外部との交流を行うこととセット
果をあげるうえでの十分条件とはならないことを実証し
でその有効性を発揮するといえる。
た（仮説1）
。ここで重要な点は，本論での分析の単位が
よって，仮説4（製薬企業の研究所内の研究者の研究
あくまでも研究者個人であるということである。すなわ
成果達成のために彼(女)らが大学などから外部知識を獲
ち，個々の研究所内研究者にとっては，外部との交流に
得・活用することは，彼(女)らが社内各部門との交流を
よる埋め込みだけを考慮するのでは不十分で，同時に彼
通じて社内情報の獲得ができている場合に効果的とな
(女) らが自ら所属する研究所内のチームに対する埋め込
る）は支持された。
み状況も勘案する必要がでてくる。よって，単なる外部
の埋め込みの影響だけを検討することは不十分といえよ
4. 2. 考察
う。我々はこの点を仮説4において実証した。
ここでは以上の結果を理論仮説およびその基盤となる
② 研究とR&D以外の部門との関係における盲点
諸理論との関連で再評価するとともに，我々がインタビ
研究者たちは，研究所以外の社内各部門との交流も多
ュー調査で得た定性データと照らし合わせて検討した
少なりとも行っている。ただし一般的にはとりわけ
い。
R&D以外の部門との交流は研究者にとってはなおさら
① 埋め込み仮説の落とし穴
優先順位の低い雑事とも取られかねないものとなってい
第一点として，製薬・バイオなどの最先端領域におけ
る。
るR&D成果達成のために外部の大学・学会等のリサー
しかし実際，研究者の研究成果により強く貢献したも
チコミュニティーへの「埋め込み」(embeddedness)の重
のは，社内のR&D以外の部門との交流による知識獲得
−231−
原 著
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
であった（仮説2，4）
。このことは一見意外に思えるが，
そうした分析は，ナレッジ・ベースト・ビューの流れに
しかし企業内研究者は社内の他部門から情報を得，自ら
おいてあまりにミクロかつ基本的な論点であるがゆえ
の研究方向性を経営方針とあまり乖離しないようにする
に，十分に扱われていないポイントである。したがって，
ことも重要だということであろう。インタビューデータ
本論で扱った分析は，広い意味でよりマクロなナレッ
でも，優れたR&D 成果でも企業が重点を置く領域・テ
ジ・ベースト・ビューの考察に対する補完的な位置づけ
ーマと全く乖離していたためにあまり評価されなかった
ともいえよう。
例が見られる。企業内研究者の特徴を示しているといえ
よう。またこの結果は，研究者側の会社との関係にかか
5. 結論
わる従来の通念に対し異なった視点を提供している。研
本論では，製薬企業の研究所に勤務する研究者を対象
究者はなによりも自律性を求めるという傾向が指摘され
に，彼 (女) らが大学・学会などからの外部最先端知識を
る が （ Behrman and Fisher 1980; DeMeyer and
獲得したり，社内各部門からの社内的知識・情報を入手
Mizushima 1989; Ghoshal and Bartlett 1988）
，社内各部
したりすることが，彼 (女) ら自身の研究成果の達成にど
門との情報隔離が過度に進むと，研究者はそれだけでは
のような効果を及ぼしているかに関する実証研究結果を
満足せず，
（親）会社との関係に価値をおく傾向がある。
報告した。
しかし，一部の研究を除いてはこうした点はいままで十
分に注目されてきたとは言いがたい（Asakawa 2001）。
特に我々が当初から注目した点は，基礎研究成果をあ
げるにはなによりも大学・学会活動を通じた最先端知識
我々はこの研究において，特にR&D以外の部門からの
の獲得が重要であるという通念であり，社内のR&D以
知識獲得の効果を浮き彫りにしたといえよう。
外の他部門との交流を通じて得られる情報等は基礎研究
③ 研究者の属する研究チームの環境の影響
の成果達成にはたいした効果を及ぼさないといった通念
研究所レベルでR&D成果を測定した先行研究による
である。我々はそうした常識と再度向き合い，単なる外
と，その研究成果は研究所が社内他部門との知識の交換，
部の大学・学会交流だけでは十分でないこと，また一見
人的交流が有効であるという結果も出ている（浅川・中
無関係とされるR&D以外の社内部門との交流も無視で
村2005）。しかし今回の我々の分析では研究者個人を分
きないことなどを明らかにした。
析のレベルに設定しており，個人のレベルでいうとその
確かに外部の大学・学会からの知識獲得は重要ではあ
属する研究チームの雰囲気に大きく影響されると考えら
るが，それだけでは企業内研究者の成果には直接結びつ
れないだろうか（仮説3）
。すなわち所属するチームの雰
かない。なぜなら企業内研究者は多少なりとも組織の論
囲気次第で，外部ナレッジ獲得が間接効果を及ぼすとい
理に影響されているからである。ひとつには，研究者が
うことがいえるだろう。
属する研究チームの雰囲気が外部ナレッジに対してオー
その意味するところは何か。いかに優れた知識でも自
プンであることが必要条件となる。自前主義が強いチー
前主義の強い組織においてそれを素直に受け入れない風
ムでは，研究者が外部ナレッジを活用すること自体に消
潮はいわゆるNIH症候群（not-invented-here syndrome）
極的にならざるを得ない。NIH症候群が蔓延していると，
として知られる。そうした組織内で働く研究者の成果が
せっかくの外部の優れた知識も素直に受け入れることが
落ちることは，個人の研究成果向上のためには単に個人
できない。もうひとつは，外部機関との交流と社内各部
の外部知識獲得・活用の努力のみでは不十分であること
門との交流とのバランスが必要条件となる。企業内研究
を意味する。つまり，個人の研究成果は個人を取り巻く
者はやはり一方で最先端知識の導入に努めると同時に，
環境要因が重要であるということを示唆している。
もう一方で社内情報に敏感である必要がある。社内での
④ ナレッジ・ベースト・ビューに対する示唆
プライオリティーが何であるかを熟知しつつ，対外的な
本論文における実証研究の結果により，ナレッジ・ベ
ースト・ビューに対しても新たな知見を提供することが
最先端知識の導入をおこなうことにより，企業内研究者
の成果が達成される可能性が高まると考えられる。
できる。企業の競争優位の源泉として特に模倣困難かつ
以上，本論はマクロなナレッジ・ベースト・ビューに
移 転 困 難 な 暗 黙 知 へ の 評 価 が 高 い が （ Conner and
対し，よりミクロレベルからの補完的視座を提供してい
Prahalad 1996; Kogut and Zander 1992），どちらかとい
る。一方，本論の課題としては，データの制約から従属
えばそのようなナレッジをいかに企業固有な組織知へと
変数として研究成果への達成感ではなく成果自体を採用
転化するかに関心が寄せられている。それに対し本論で
できなかったことがあげられる。今後の課題としたい。
は，それ以前によりミクロなレベルで研究者個人の成果
の向上に対しどのような要因が考えられるかを扱った。
−232−
製薬企業の研究者レベルにおける研究成果達成の条件：内外コラボレーションを通じたナレッジ獲得の効果
Management 22
（2）
: 177-182.
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（平成16年10月28日受稿，平成17年 5 月30日受理）
−234−
Japanese Journal of Administrative Science
Volume18, No.3, 2005, 235-244.
研究ノート
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号, 2005, 235−244.
スチュワードシップ理論：性善説に基づく経営理論
―
― 理論の解説，先行研究の整理，今後の研究の方向性 ―
―
早稲田大学大学院アジア太平洋研究科
柏 木
仁
Stewardship theory: A management theory based on a self-actualizing man
Description of the theory, literature reviews, and implications on future research
Hitoshi KASHIWAGI
(Waseda University Graduate School of Asia Pacific Studies)
This research note aims to produce a lead for future theoretical and empirical research
projects on stewardship theory. In contrast to agency theory, which views human beings as
opportunistic and self-interested, stewardship theory argues that people are selfactualizing and good stewards in nature, thus they are motivated to work hard for their
company and to look after its interests and those of its shareholders. It is a relatively new
management theory, and most of the empirical studies conducted to date have focused on
corporate governance, i.e., relations between CEO duality/board compositions, and
organizational outcomes, especially financial performance. However, more research is
required to identify new constructs and their interactions, and to delineate theoretical
details. The paper presents what we know about stewardship theory including
psychological and structural components, literature reviews and implications for the future
research from the perspective of integrating agency and stewardship theories.
Keywords: Stewardship theory; Self-actualization; Tension management.
測することに貢献できるであろう。また，エージェンシ
Ⅰ. はじめに
ー理論とスチュワードシップ理論のどちらか一方のスタ
本研究ノートの目的は，比較的新しい経営理論である
イルに過度に傾倒すれば弊害が生じる危険性があること
スチュワードシップ理論について整理し紹介すること
から，2つの理論を統合させた場合に生じる緊張関係を
で，今後の学界における研究の進展に対して，先行研究
マネジメントすることが必要である。
を踏まえる際の一つの手掛かりとなるよう貢献すること
である。読者の理解を促すため対照的なエージェンシー
Ⅱ. スチュワードシップ理論の構成
理論との比較を用いて，1）スチュワードシップ理論の
「（人間は）さまざまな知恵や力など限りない可能性を秘
構成要素の解説，2）先行研究の整理，3）今後の研究の
めている。そのことにお互いが気付いて，個々に，ある
方向性，について論述する。エージェンシー理論が性悪
いは協力してその可能性を磨いていくならば，人間本来
説的な考え方に基づく経営理論であるのに対し，スチュ
の持つ特質，よさが光り輝くようになってくる。（中略）
ワードシップ理論は性善説的な考え方に基づく経営理論
私たちは，この人間の偉大さというものに案外気付いて
といえる。本研究ノートは，エージェンシー理論とスチ
いないのではないか。むしろ，人間は弱いものである，
ュワードシップ理論を対比させて論じ，2つの理論の両
信頼できないものである，自分勝手なわがままなもので
立，統合を目指すという視点で，整理する。
あり，争いを好むものであるといった見方に立っている。
スチュワードシップ理論は，エージェンシー理論のよ
（松下幸之助, 1984, pp.16-17）
」
うな確立された強い説明力を持つ理論とは言えない。今
経済学にルーツを持ち，エコノミック・マンを人間の
後，研究を進め，スチュワードシップ理論をより強固な
行動モデルとするエージェンシー理論は，企業統治やマ
ものに発展させることで，人間行動の複雑さを説明し予
ネジメントの研究に対して強い影響を与えてきた。エー
−235−
研究ノート
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
ジェンシー理論では，人間は本来自己の利益を優先する
ク・マンと仮定するのに対して，Argyris (1973) は，よ
ご都合主義であると仮定するので，企業統治やマネジメ
り複雑で人間性のある行動モデルを主張した。Argyris
ントはコントロール型が推奨され，外発的動機付けを満
が論じる人間の行動モデルは「自己実現する人間」とし
たす報酬スタイルが重視される。しかし，特に，豊かさ
て描写され，McGregor (1960) およびMaslow (1954) の理
を得た先進諸国において，人間の価値観は多様化し，仕
論にそのルーツを持つ。自己実現する人間という行動モ
事に求めるものは，お金だけではなくお金以外の何かも
デルは，人間は生まれながらにして現在の段階を越えて
重要になっている。また，市場や環境の変化は早く，企
より高いレベルに到達しようとする，成長，達成の欲求
業にとっては不確実性と不安定さが増す一方で，ITの導
を持つという考え方であり，スチュワードシップ理論の
入が後押しとなり，構造的には個人の権限委譲がより容
基礎となる人間の行動モデルである「スチュワード」と
易に実現するようになった。米国のエネルギー会社エン
等しい (Davis, Schoorman, & Donaldson, 1997)。スチュ
ロンの倒産以来，企業統治の見直しに関する議論に拍車
ワードは，組織や社会の利益に奉仕する行動が，自己の
がかかり，特に米国で，企業から独立した社外取締役
利益に奉仕する行動よりも高い効用を持つ。すなわち，
（非常勤役員）と知識豊富な常勤役員のどちらが取締役
スチュワードは組織や社会の目的を達成しようと行動す
会を支配すべきか，また，取締役会は経営者を監視すべ
ることで個人の効用が最大化されるので，安定したパフ
きか，あるいは経営者に対して権限委譲すべきか等，さ
ォーマンスを発揮する。
まざまな議論が繰り広げられている。こういった背景の
Davis, Schoorman, & Donaldson (1997) は，エージェ
中，心理学と社会学にルーツを持つ経営理論であるスチ
ンシー理論と対比させて，スチュワードシップ理論を構
ュワードシップ理論が，エージェンシー理論とは異なる
成する要素を表1のように整理している。なお，2つの理
「性善説」的な見方を人間の行動モデルに導入し，それ
論の見方は，McGregor (1960) のX理論とY理論に表れて
に基づく企業統治やマネジメントの処方箋を提案してい
いることを補足する。X理論では，人間は自ら働くよう
る。
に動機付けられないと仮定するため，経営者によるコン
トロールを必要とする。すなわち，エージェンシー理論
Ⅱ. 1. 人間の行動モデル：性悪説と性善説
はX理論の色が濃い。一方，Y理論によると，人間は自
Berle & Means (1932) は，企業統治に「所有と経営の
ら働くことを動機付けられ，責任を持って仕事を引き受
分離」の考え方を導入した。分離することによって，企
け実行すると仮定するため，経営者は仕事環境を整える
業の所有者（株主）は自らの投資ポートフォリオを分散
ことが責務となる。すなわち，スチュワードシップ理論
することができ，一方，経営者は経営に専念することが
はY理論に基づく。
でき，効率的であるとして重用された。この所有と経営
の分離の考え方を一つの基礎とし，Jensen & Meckling
Ⅱ. 2. 心理的要因：動機付け
(1976) がエージェンシー理論を発表すると，企業統治や
スチュワードシップ理論を構成する心理的要因につい
マネジメントの研究あるいは処方箋は，エージェンシー
て述べる。心理的要因の中で，最も特徴的なものは動機
理論によって強く影響を受けるようになった。エージェ
付けである。つまり，エージェンシー理論とスチュワー
ンシー理論の根底には，経済研究に由来する人間の仮説
ドシップ理論の心理的要因の大きな違いは，外発的ある
である「エコノミック・マン（自己の効用を最大化しよ
いは内発的，どちらの動機付けに焦点を当てているかで
うと合理的に行動する人間）」という行動モデルがある。
ある。エージェンシー理論は人間の外発的動機付けに焦
この行動モデルによれば，人間は生まれながらにしてご
点を当て，Maslowの欲求階層理論 (Maslow, 1954) にお
都合主義で，自己の利益を最大化しようと行動する傾向
ける生理的，安全，経済等の低位の欲求が中心となる。
にあると仮定される。この仮定は，全ての人間にあては
対照的に，スチュワードシップ理論は人間の内発的動機
まるとは限らないものの，企業統治やマネジメントの理
付けに焦点を当て，欲求階層理論における成長，達成，
論や処方箋の基礎となってきた。エージェンシー理論に
自己実現等の高位の欲求が中心となる。報酬についても，
は，例えば，自己実現，成長，達成，忠誠，高い倫理観，
エージェンシー理論では，定量化して測定でき，市場で
内発的動機付け，等の人間に対する性善説的な考え方が
の価値を持つ取引可能な商品としての外発的報酬に焦点
欠けていた。Jensen & Mecklingでさえ，数学的なモデ
を当てる。一方，スチュワードシップ理論では，簡単に
リングに基づく人間行動の簡略的な記述であるとして，
定量化されない個人の内発的報酬に焦点を当てる。
この行動モデルを批判している。
エージェンシー理論が人間の行動を単純にエコノミッ
−236−
スチュワードシップ理論：性善説に基づく経営理論
表1 エージェンシー理論とスチュワードシップ理論の比較
Davis, Schoorman, & Donaldson（1997）を基に著者作成
Ⅱ. 3. 心理的要因：同一化，コミットメント
Ⅱ. 4. 心理的要因：影響力の行使
スチュワードシップ理論を構成する心理的要因の2つ
人間によって行使される影響力の種類は，人間がエー
目は，同一化，コミットメントである。同一化とは，個
ジェンシー関係を選択するか，スチュワードシップ関係
人が組織に対して精神的に一体化することであり，経営
を選択するかに影響を与える。French & Raven (1959)
者が組織のビジョンや目的を引き受け，組織との帰属関
は影響力を強制力，報酬力，正当権力，専門力，同一視
係で自分を規定する時に生じる(Mael & Ashforth, 1992)。
力と定義した １。この5つの影響力は，組織の力と個人
組織と同一化する経営者は，組織の成功を自分の成功の
の力に分類される。組織の力は，組織の地位によって人
ように捉えるため仕事満足度を増やす。また，コミット
間に与えられる力であり，強制力，報酬力，正当権力が
メントは，組織と個人の同一化，関与の強さであるが
該当する。一方，個人の力は，組織の地位による影響を
(Porter, Steers, Mowday, & Boulian, 1974)，同一化に関
受けない人間固有の部分に基づく力であり，専門力と同
連する概念である。特に，価値コミットメント (Mayer
一視力が該当する。エージェンシー理論では，組織の力
& Schoorman, 1992) や，愛着的コミットメント (Allen &
Meyer, 1990)は，同一化に密接に関係がある。エージェ
１ 強制力は人間の恐怖心に依存する力で、組織では解
ンシー理論では，価値コミットメントは経済的な効用を
雇、停職等の形で行使される。報酬力はプラスのメリ
持たないため心理的要因とはならないのに対し，スチュ
ットに基づく力で、報酬、昇進等の形で行使される。
ワードシップ理論では，価値コミットメントはスチュワ
正当権力は組織の権威ある地位に基づく力である。専
ードの重要な心理的要因の一つを構成するものである。
門力は個人の持つ専門知識、専門技術等に基づく力で
ある。同一視力は好ましい人間との同一化に基づく力
である (French & Raven, 1959)。
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研究ノート
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
の行使が人間関係の基本となる。つまり，コントロール
1993)，等が挙げられるが，スチュワードシップ理論は，
を生み出すため，組織の報酬システムと正当な権限が組
これらの経営哲学を支持するものである。
み合わされて行使される。一方，スチュワードシップ理
論では，個人の力が影響を与える。個人の力は，組織の
Ⅱ. 6. 構造的要因：文化
力と比較して，人間関係の背景の中で一定の時間をかけ
もう一つの構造的要因は文化である。Hofstede (1991)
て形成されるため，生じるのに時間がかかるものの，一
は，世界の国と地域を個人主義と集産主義という切り口
度形成されるとより長い期間にわたって維持することが
によって解説している。例えば，個人主義は主に米国，
可能である。
西欧等で見られる特徴的な文化であり，一方，集産主義
は主にアジア，南米等に共通する文化である。個人によ
Ⅱ. 5. 構造的要因：経営哲学
って受ける影響の度合いは異なるものの，こうした文化
次に，スチュワードシップ理論を構成する構造的要因
は，人間がエージェンシー関係とスチュワードシップ関
について論述する。1つ目は経営哲学である。エージェ
係のどちらを選択するかに影響を与える。個人主義の文
ンシー理論が説く人間の行動モデルは，ご都合主義で，
化はエージェンシー関係を促す可能性があるのに対し，
利己的であるため，コントロール型の経営が推奨される。
集産主義の文化はスチュワードシップ関係を育む可能性
これに対して，スチュワードシップ理論が説く人間の行
がある。例えば，日本は集産主義的な文化を持つため，
動モデルは，自ら進んで組織のために貢献しようとする
個人がスチュワードのように行動すること，すなわち，
ため，経営者は従業員の仕事環境を整えることが責務で
組織の利益を自分の利益に優先させることを育む状況が
あり，参加型，および権限委譲型の経営が推奨される。
存在すると指摘されている (Donaldson, 2004)。
文化のもう一つの概念は権力格差である。権力格差と
このように，人間の行動モデルについての仮説が経営哲
学の開発を主導し，実際に導入された経営哲学によって，
は，国および組織において権力が不平等に分配されるこ
仮説と一致した人間の行動を生み出すと考えられる。
とを受け入れる度合いである(Hofstede, 1991)。権力格差
Argyris (1973) は，組織は人間の行動モデルに対する見
の大きい文化を持つ国および組織は，権力の小さい人間
解の上に設計され，その中に人材が置かれると，モデル
が大きい人間に対して依存することが受け入れられる。
となった見解通りの達成が行われる，すなわち「予言の
一方，権力格差の小さい文化を持つ国や組織は，権力の
自己達成」について論じている。また，McGregor
不平等が最小化され，権力の小さい人間の独立が尊重さ
(1960) は，経営者や組織のリーダーが，どのような方法
れる。また，権力格差の大きい組織は中央集権的であり，
で人間を管理するのが最も効果的だと信じているのかが
個人の権限に大きな格差があるのに対し，権力格差の小
重要であり，経営者がどのような仮定に立って人材を管
さい組織は，分権的であり協議による意思決定が採用さ
理しているかで組織の性格が決まってくる，と述べてい
れる。権力格差の大きい文化はエージェンシー関係を促
る。
す可能性があるのに対し，権力格差の小さい文化はスチ
コントロール型の経営では，人間の限定的な合理性に
ュワードシップ関係を促す可能性がある。
基づき信頼を回避し，コントロールしようとするのに対
また，コントロール型の経営が，短期的な視点でコスト
Ⅱ. 7. エージェンシー関係，スチュワードシッ
プ関係の選択
管理することを重視するのに対し，参加型の経営は長期
人間がエージェントとして行動するか，スチュワード
的な視点で成果を向上させることを重視する。なお，安
として行動するかの選択には，これまで述べた心理的要
定した予測可能な環境下ではコントロール型のマネジメ
因や構造的要因が影響を与える。それでは，二人の人間
ントが効果的であるのに対し，不安定で予測不可能な環
によって行動の選択が行われる場合，どのような結果が
境下では参加型のマネジメントが効果的であることを補
導かれるであろうか。二人の人間による選択は「囚人の
足する。
ジレンマ」に類似する (Davis, Schoorman, & Donaldson,
し，参加型の経営では信頼が一つの重要な基礎となる。
McGregorのY理論やMaslowの自己実現の概念に基づ
1997)。ジレンマは，両者が互いに異なる関係を選択す
くマネジメントは，1960年代から経営の現場で実践され
るときに生まれる。ここでは，企業の所有者（プリンシ
ており，具体的には，システム4 (Likert, 1967)，ハイ・
パル）と経営者（マネジャー）を例に説明する（図1）
。
コミットメント型組織 (Walton, 1985)，ジョブ・デザイ
所有者がエージェンシー関係を選択し，経営者がスチ
ン (Hackman & Oldham, 1980)，ハイ・インボルブメン
ュワードシップ関係を選択するとき，所有者は日和見的
ト型組織 (Lawler, 1986)，自律型チーム (Manz & Sims,
に行動し，経営者は苛立ち裏切られる結果となる（選択
−238−
スチュワードシップ理論：性善説に基づく経営理論
3）
。スチュワードである経営者は，所有者によってエー
的なコストを最小化する結果がもたらされる（選択1）。
ジェントのごとくコントロールされ，内発的な報酬を享
つまり，エージェントの心理的要因を持つ経営者の利己
受することはできない。またコントロールの適用は，権
的な行動は所有者によって予測され，それを抑制するた
利を剥奪された従業員を生み出す。組織は非人格化し，
めのコントロールによってエージェンシー・コストは最
経営者は会社を取替え可能な一つの器として捉え，従業
小化する。所有者と経営者がともにスチュワードシップ
員は長期欠勤と転職のような行動に向かう可能性があ
関係を選択するとき，相互にスチュワードシップ関係と
る。所有者がスチュワードシップ関係を選択し，経営者
なり，潜在的なパフォーマンスを最大化する結果がもた
がエージェンシー関係を選択するとき，経営者は日和見
らされる（選択4）
。経営者はスチュワードの心理的要因
的に行動し，所有者は怒り裏切られる結果となる（選択
を持ち，組織の目的を達成することから自己の効用を得
2）
。エージェントである経営者は，所有者の代価で個人
る。同様に，所有者は参加型経営と経営者の権利を拡大
の効用を満たそうとするため，所有者は経営者に対する
する環境を選択する。このように，お互いにスチュワー
コントロールを増やすか，追い出そうとするであろう。
ドシップ関係を選択したことから得られる相互の利益は
一方，所有者と経営者がともにエージェンシー関係を
大きなものとなる。
選択するとき，相互にエージェンシー関係となり，潜在
図1 プリンシパル・マネジャーの選択モデル
Davis, Schoorman, & Donaldson（1997）を基に著者作成
以上の4つの結果の中で好ましい選択は，お互いがエ
ージェンシー関係を選択した場合（選択1）と，お互い
Ⅲ. 先行研究の整理
がスチュワードシップ関係を選択した場合（選択4）で
ある。こうした選択に影響を与えるのは，人間の相手を
これまで，エージェンシー理論との比較を交えながら，
スチュワードシップ理論の構成要素について論述し，ま
信頼したいという気持ちと，裏切られるリスクに対する
た，二人の人間によるスチュワード/エージェントの選
許容度，すなわち受入れ可能な損失のレベルである，と
択の結果について解説した。次に，スチュワードシップ
指摘されている(Davis, Schoorman, & Donaldson, 1997)。
理論が今までどのようなビジネスの文脈に適用され，ど
−239−
研究ノート
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
のような実証研究が行われてきたのかについて整理す
者間の摩擦が小さくなることで風通しが良くなり協働を
る。
促すこと，さらに，経営層にも取締役というステータス
報酬を与えるからである。一方，エージェンシー理論で
Ⅲ. 1. 取締役会の構成とそのリーダーシップ
は，取締役会において社外取締役が優勢である方が企業
エージェンシー理論もスチュワードシップ理論も，二
にとってメリットがある。経営者に対して不公平な監視
人以上の人間のいかなる関係にも適用可能であるが
を行わないためには，企業の取締役会は経営層とは独立
(Davis, Schoorman, & Donaldson. 1997)，実証研究の大
した形が望まれるからである。
なお，Dalton, Daily, Ellstrand, & Johnson (1998) は，
部分は，経営の現場で議論が盛んになっている企業統治
に関するものである。すなわち，企業の所有者（株主）
取締役会の構成，経営者と取締役会会長の兼務の有無，
と経営者の関係，すなわち，株主利益を代表する取締役
および企業の財務パフォーマンスの関係について，159
会と経営者に関する実証研究が中心であり，財務パフォ
件の実証研究（対象企業40,160社）についてメタ分析を
ーマンス (e.g., Donaldson & Davis, 1991; Dalton, Daily,
行っているが，その結果，エージェンシー理論とスチュ
Ellstrand, & Johnson, 1998, Westphal, 1999)，R&D投資
ワードシップ理論の両者を支持する結果が得られてい
(e.g., Lee & O’Neill, 2003)，戦略 (e.g., Fox & Hamilton,
る。また，より最近の実証研究例では，Tian & Lau
1994)，M&Aの投資効率 (Desai, Kroll, & Wright, 2003)，
(2001) が，集産主義的な文化を持つ中国を対象に同様の
破綻 (Daily & Dalton, 1994)，等に対して企業の取締役会
実証研究を行い，結果，スチュワードシップ理論に基づ
の構成が与える影響，あるいはその関係性が調査されて
く仮説が支持されている。
いる。
スチュワードシップ理論は，経営者を組織のために良
Ⅲ. 2. 起業家とベンチャーキャピタル
く働くスチュワードと仮定するため，取締役会は経営者
起業家とベンチャーキャピタルの関係を説明する上
を信頼し，権限を委譲する統治構造が重要となる。すな
で，エージェンシー理論は一つの支配的な考え方となっ
わち，影響力と権限が経営者に集中する組織構造が，企
てきた (e.g. Sahlman, 1990; Sapienza & Gupta, 1994)。エ
業のパフォーマンスを高めるために有効になる。こうし
ージェンシー問題は，起業家とベンチャーキャピタルの
た組織構造は，経営者が取締役会の会長を兼務すること
利害が異なる結果，プリンシパルであるベンチャーキャ
で可能になる。なぜなら，職位の兼務によって，組織の
ピタルとエージェントである起業家との間に生まれる。
指揮が統一され，経営者の強力なリーダーシップの発揮
そこで，ベンチャーキャピタルは，適切なインセンティ
が可能となり，また，影響力と権限が分割されていると
ブと監視によって，起業家の利己的な行動をコントロー
きに起こる可能性のある組織内の衝突や，役割のあいま
ルする。つまり，エージェンシー理論はベンチャーキャ
いさが排除されるメリットがあるからである。
ピタルの投資分を起業家の利己的な行動から守ることに
一方，エージェンシー理論は，経営者を利己的な行動
焦点を当てている。
をするエージェントと仮定するため，取締役会は経営者
しかし，起業家とベンチャーキャピタルの関係は，時
を監視し，経営者をコントロールする統治構造が重要と
間とともに変化してゆくことが予想されるため，エージ
なる。経営者と取締役会会長の兼務は，経営者の取締役
ェンシー理論による説明だけでは不十分である可能性が
に対する公式の権力が大きくなるだけでなく，取締役会
高い。Arthurs & Busenitz (2003) やChrisman, Chua, &
に対する非公式の影響力も増加するため，結果として，
Litz (2004) は，ベンチャー企業の研究において，スチュ
取締役会によって経営者を監視する効果性が損なわれる
ワードシップ理論がエージェンシー理論を補完する可能
こととなる。すなわち，エージェンシー理論の視点に立
性があることを指摘している。ベンチャーキャピタルは
てば，経営者と取締役会会長の兼務，企業の株式を所有
実際に投資する前に，投資の失敗を回避するため起業家
しない経営者，株価等の株主の富と連動した報酬を支給
およびベンチャー企業に対して適正審査を行うが，この
されない経営者等，コントロールと金銭的インセンティ
時点が，ベンチャーキャピタルにとって起業家に対する
ブに欠ける統治構造は推奨されない。
不確実性や不信が最も大きくなる時期と考えられる。審
取締役会の構成についても，2つの理論は異なる処方
査の結果，出資が決定し初回投資が行われた後は，ベン
箋を提示する。スチュワードシップ理論によると，取締
チャーキャピタルと起業家の目的やゴールは基本的に一
役会において常勤役員が優勢である方が企業にとってメ
致するため，エージェンシー理論の説明力は弱まる可能
リットがある。なぜなら，常勤役員が優勢であることは，
性がある (Arthurs & Busenitz, 2003)。一方，スチュワー
経営のために利用可能な専門知識を増やし，また，経営
ドシップ理論は，プリンシパルとスチュワードの目的や
−240−
スチュワードシップ理論：性善説に基づく経営理論
ゴールが一致していることを前提としており，初回投資
て論じている。経営者がスチュワードであれば，企業と
後の両者の関係を説明する上で貢献できる可能性があ
同一化し組織の使命や目的を共有するので，組織の使命
る。ベンチャーキャピタルと起業家がお互いに信頼し，
を達成しようと行動する経営者を信頼することができ，
ベンチャー企業の成功という共通のゴールに向けての協
それに基づき，権限の拡大と委譲が可能となる。また，
働や，起業家が自らの資源と能力をベンチャー企業の成
信頼は参加型経営の重要な要素でもある。信頼は，スチ
功のために注ぐには，ベンチャーキャピタルはどのよう
ュワードが行使する個人の力に基づくとき形成される可
に促すことが必要なのか，さらに，エージェンシー理論
能性が高いことが論じられているが，信頼と個人が請け
では説明が難しいとされるエンジェルと起業家の関係
負ってもよいと考えるリスクの大きさ，つまり個人のリ
(e.g. Kelly & Hay, 2001)を説明する上で，スチュワードシ
スクに対する許容度の関係についても研究する価値があ
ップ理論は新たな貢献をする可能性がある。
る (Davis, Schoorman, & Donaldson, 1997)。信頼とスチ
ュワードシップ理論の関係を調査することで，新たな事
Ⅳ. 今後の研究の方向性
実が発見できる可能性がある。
Argyris (1998) は，参加型の経営や権限の委譲は形だ
けの導入で終っている可能性があり，真に人間性を反映
したマネジメントはいまだ実現されていないと主張し，
Ⅳ. 3. エージェンシー理論とスチュワードシッ
プ理論の統合：緊張関係のマネジメント
その実質的な成功に疑問を投げかけている。
エージェンシー理論あるいはスチュワードシップ理論
スチュワードシップ理論に関する今後の研究の方向性
のどちらの見地を取るか，という議論を超えた理解を呼
びかける研究がある (e.g. Audia, Locke, & Smith, 2000;
について提言する。
Kisfalvi, 2000)。エージェンシー理論に基づくコントロー
Ⅳ. 1. 新たな概念の発見と検証
ル型のアプローチは，監視や罰則，規律を通じて人間の
経営の現場により貢献するよう，スチュワードシップ
利己的な行動を牽制するのに対し，スチュワードシップ
理論を説明力の強いものにするためには，様々な理論的
理論に基づく参加型のアプローチは，協働と権限委譲を
および実証的な研究が必要であり，新たな概念の発見と
通じて個人の熱意を活用する。しかし，どちらか一つの
検証，等さらにきめ細かい分析を行うことが求められ
アプローチが強調され過ぎると，「人間不信」や「集団
る。
思考の罠」という危険性が生じてしまうことも事実であ
柏木，東出（2005, 印刷中）が行ったスチュワードシ
る。相反する二つの人間の行動モデルは，人間の本性の
ップ理論を日本のNPO法人という文脈に適用した実証研
入り組んだ二面性を浮き彫りにしており，この人間の複
究では，組織のパフォーマンスに最も強く寄与する概念
雑性に対する研究がさらに求められている
として「使命の共有」が検出された。また，この実証研
(Sundaramurthy & Lewis, 2003)。Ghoshal & Moran
究では，組織のパフォーマンスとして財務等に代表され
(1996) は，社会的な関係や経済交換が行われる文脈にお
る成果に加え，スタッフの愛着的コミットメント (Allen
いては，参加者の間に，自己権力の拡大あるいは信頼，
& Meyer, 1990)，組織市民行動 (Organ, 1997)，組織の効
個人主義あるいは集産主義，競争あるいは協調を生み出
果性という人的および非財務的成果が従属変数として加
すが，経済の発展には，これらの選択肢のどちらのタイ
えられた。財務パフォーマンスに加えて，非財務パフォ
プの行動も必要であると論じている。例えば，企業の取
ーマンスを評価することで，組織の真の姿を捉えること
締役会には，密接な関係からなる信頼を基本とした協働
により近づくことができるからである。実証研究の結果，
が必要であると同時に，役員一人一人が独立した個人と
スチュワードシップ理論に基づく組織のマネジメント
して集団思考の罠を拒絶し，メンバーに批判的かつ建設
が，主に非財務的パフォーマンスの向上に寄与すること
的な意見ができる自律性も維持しなければならない。
が検証されている。今後，研究を進めることで，新たな
Senge (1994) は，統合に伴う「テンション（緊張関係）
」
要因と成果の概念が発見される可能性がある。
の概念について論じている。エージェンシー理論に基づ
くアプローチとスチュワードシップ理論に基づくアプロ
Ⅳ. 2. 信頼
ーチを統合させれば，そこには緊張関係が生まれる。自
スチュワードシップ理論に基づく企業統治およびマネ
然は安定を求めるが，完全にどちらか一方に引っ張られ
ジメントが実現するためには，信頼は欠かせない一つの
落ち着くのであれば，先に述べたような人間不信や集団
重要な要素である。Davis, Schoorman, & Donaldson
思考の罠による負の帰結が最初は水面下で起こり始め，
(1997) は，取締役会と経営者の間の信頼の重要性につい
やがて加速度的に表面化してくる危険性がある。コント
−241−
研究ノート
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
ロールかコラボレーション（協働）かという，どちらか
変化に応じて，双方の長所を活用できるようになる可能
一方の経営に極端に傾くのではなく，両者を統合したこ
性がある。こうした観点から，スチュワードシップ理論
とで生じる緊張関係をマネジメントすることが必要であ
をさらに説明力のある理論に発展させることが必要であ
る（表2）
。それによって，組織のライフサイクルや環境
る。
表2 企業統治の対照的なアプローチ
Sundaramurthy & Lewis（2003）を基に著者作成
ュワードシップ理論に基づくマネジメントは，こうした
Ⅴ. おわりに
風潮に一石を投じることができるであろう。
性善説的な考え方に基づくスチュワードシップ理論
エージェンシー理論はエージェントを悲観的存在とし
は，比較的新しい経営理論であり，今後，理論と実証の
て描いているのに対し，スチュワードシップ理論はスチ
両面から研究を進めることで詳細をより明らかにし，エ
ュワードを楽観的存在として描いている。人間は，エー
ージェンシー理論との緊張関係を維持するためにも，説
ジェンシー理論が描くエージェントのようにも，またス
明力の強い理論に発展させていくことが必要である。現
チュワードシップ理論が描くスチュワードのようにも行
在，特に企業統治の分野で，コントロール型を更に強め
動しない。しかしながら，全ての文脈で正しいといえる
ようという議論が，米国等を中心に盛んになりつつある。
理論は存在せず，重要なことは両者を統合することで人
しかし，グローバルな知識経済において，組織の効率性
間行動の複雑さに対する説明と予測をさらに発展させて
と財務パフォーマンスを重視するエージェンシー理論に
いくことではないだろうか。スチュワードシップ理論を
基づくマネジメントだけでは不十分なのは明らかであ
より説明力のあるものに発展させ，経営の現場に処方箋
り，信頼を基本としたコラボレーションを重視するスチ
を提案できるようにすることは，学界のみならず経営実
−242−
スチュワードシップ理論：性善説に基づく経営理論
Toward a stewardship theory of management.
務に対しても大きく貢献するものと期待される。
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board monitoring, and acquisition performance: A
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の査読者の方，また編集委員長の星野靖雄教授，および
test of COMI. Journal of Business Strategies, 20-2,
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−244−
（平成16年12月 8 日受稿，平成17年 5 月30日受理）
Japanese Journal of Administrative Science
Volume18, No.3, 2005, 245-252.
Interview
インタビュー
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号, 2005, 245−252.
Interview with Special Editor of JJAS,
Professor Emeritus Michael Conant,
Haas School of Business, University of
California at Berkekey on March 7,
2005, at his office
Professor Hoshino: Five years.
Professor Conant: You add five years in terms of
calculating your pension. All right I taught 37. 37 plus 5
is forty-two. So I am just explaining I retired on full
salary. That’s better than most places on this earth. It is
very comfortable.
Professor Hoshino: Professor Michael Conant, I am very
Professor Hoshino: It is a strong incentive to retire.
glad to meet you again here.
Professor Conant: Well yes.
Several years passed since I met you last time. At least 6
Professor Hoshino: But in the United States no
or 7 years ago I came here to the Haas School of
retirement age formally.
Business and I met you.
Professor Conant: They have done away with that, yes.
Professor Conant: That’s right.
When in 1991 the university still had a compulsory
Professor Hoshino: At that time I was thinking of
retirement age of 70 but a new law was about to begin
inviting you to Nagoya University of Foreign Studies to
wiping out the 70 which means a professor could stay on
teach one course, corporate law. But at that time you
and never retire. And the university administration, the
couldn’t come to Japan, because you were busy taking
president’s office came up with the idea that some
care of some law affairs, litigation.
professor might want teach when they are 75 and their
Professor Conant: I was advising lawyer.
brain is not too good, so that’s why they had adopted the
Professor Hoshino: Yes lawyer. So you said you couldn’t
plus five to try to get those of us who were on the verge
go to foreign countries.
of retirement taking retirement. And so that was a very
Professor Conant: Right.
pleasant event. So, my pension is a lot of money.
Professor Hoshino: Because of that you couldn’t come to
Professor Hoshino: And you can use this office any time.
Japan, I am sorry that you couldn’t come.
Professor Conant: Yes, well because we only have a half
Then, now you became Professor Emeritus at Haas
office here, I can’t really work here. I mean I have an
School of Business, after 1991.
enormous library of 400 volumes in my study at home, so
Would you explain the role of Professor Emeritus status
mostly I work at home. But if you work in the law like I
in this school?
do, you have to spend one or two days a week in the law
Professor Conant: Well Professor Emeritus has no ties to
library assembling materials to take home. So I am here
the school. If he chooses he can move to Arizona and sit
usually Monday and Fridays and I work. I have been
on the sun all day. But different professors have different
already to the law library this morning, checking out
views. My view is I could retire in 1991 and become a full
some materials and so I keep busy with my research.
time researcher, not a half time researcher like when
Other professors, in fact the majority who retired, they
you’re teaching. So that’s why I have turned out some
don’t do very much research. a few of them asked to be
substantial work since 1991. But I can tell you some
called back each year, which the dean can either approve
things about the retirement system that may interest
or say no. So the dean has the power to decide whether
you.
some older professor passed 70, has still got his mind
Professor Hoshino: Yes.
functioning well or not. So each year the older one who
Professor Conant: The University of California
wants to continue in teaching must reapply for part time,
retirement system sets your pension on the basis of how
not full time. You can teach one course a year, just in a
many years you taught. All right under that system, if
full semester or spring, or you can apply for two courses
you teach for 41 years you retire at full salary. In 1991
a year, one in the fall and one in the spring. And if the
they had a special incentive for retirement for older
dean approves, you are called back. So one of our
professors because they wanted to bring in some young
professors here who’s name is Alan Cerf, is in
very smart people. So the university adopted a policy
accounting, a field where there’re in a very short of
that was called “Plus Five”, to the number of years you
faculty and he has asked to be called back two semesters
taught you add five.
every year. He teaches every year, so people like me
−245−
インタビュー
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
think he’s a little bit crazy but that’s, you know, but he
courses in Chicago, so at Harvard he was a great star. I
just enjoys the class room so much more than other
mean he already absorbed the graduate level of
people do.
economics once and now he was doing it a second time.
Professor Hoshino: Yes, I think that is very good. I know
So that made him a great student at Harvard.
that a very famous professor of Management, Dr. Peter
Professor Hoshino: You met him at that time?
Drucker, is still teaching at the Claremont Graduate
Professor Conant: No, no I haven’t met Samuelson, no I
School. His age is I think 95 this year.
never met him.
Professor Conant: It could be.
Professor Hoshino: So I see you know that because you
Professor Hoshino: And he published a series of articles
are also from the University of Chicago.
from Nihon Keizai Shimbun. That is a counterpart of
Professor Conant: You’re right.
Wall Street Journal, an economic paper in Japanese.
Professor Hoshino: Then ok.
Almost all Japanese businessmen read it every day
Professor Conant: I mean I studied; I finished all my
because it’s a very important newspaper in Japan. And
graduate courses before Professor Friedman came back
Drucker is still teaching. I was very surprised to know. I
from Columbia to teach in Chicago, Milton Friedman,
found out that one Japanese company “ITOYOKADO”
you know who Milton Friedman is.
donated 20 million dollars to that business school; they
Professor Hoshino: Of course, I know.
have a name, Drucker and Ito School of Management.
Professor Conant: So he, I met Friedman and I took my
That’s a very good case.
final oral exam for the PhD. He was on the examining
Professor Conant: Yes, I have met Drucker.
committee so I met him across the table, on that
Professor Hoshino: Oh you have met?
occasion. But I talked to him some other times.
Professor Conant: Yes he has a German accent.
Professor Hoshino: So your degree is from economics
Professor Hoshino: And, he is from Austria. When did
and law, both.
you meet him?
Professor Conant: Both.
Professor Conant: That was at some meeting in San
Professor Hoshino: Great
Francisco and I met him. I don’t remember exactly.
Professor Conant: Yes, both fields. So I was a graduate
Professor Hoshino: Not so recent one?
student for 6 years. I was a graduate student in
Professor Conant: No, no. Twenty years ago when he
economics for three years and a law student for three
was an old man.
years.
Professor Hoshino: And also very famous economist
So that’s hard work, very hard work. You know in my
“Samuelson” he published articles also in the counterpart
law school class, this may interest you, in my law school
of Wall Street Journal, Nihon Keizai Shimbun, I saw his
class there were 98 men and one woman. And the one
article, he is a professor at MIT now.
woman was from Hawaii and her name was Patsy
Professor Conant: Oh yes.
Takemoto Mink.
Professor Hoshino: He is still active.
Professor Hoshino: Takemoto Mink?
Professor Conant: Oh yes, he’s older than I am.
Professor Conant: Yes Japanese American. And so she
Professor Hoshino: Oh older than you.
was there with all of us, and she was a very fine student,
Professor Conant: I am 80, he is more than 80.
and she was the first member of our class to be elected to
Professor Hoshino: These people are very active, even he
the Congress of the United States, she was a
is older than you, so that is very good.
congresswoman from the state of Hawaii, 24 years in the
Professor Conant: You see Paul Samuelson grew up in
Congress of the United States. And so she goes down in
Chicago, when he was an undergraduate at the
history as the first Asian woman ever to serve in the
University of Chicago he was extremely a gifted student
United States Congress.
and he sat in on and all of the graduate courses in
Professor Hoshino: Ah I didn’t know.
economics, he visited all the graduate courses in
Professor Conant: The first Asian ancestry women.
economics, the whole thing. Then he went on to Harvard
When Hawaii first became a state, I don’t remember, I
for the PhD program, but he had already heard the PhD
think in 1959, one of the man who was elected as a
−246−
Interview with Special Editor of JJAS, Professor Emeritos Michael Conant
senator, to the United States Senate, to the upper house,
newspaper clipping about Patsy that I could send you, if
was named Hiram Fong, so he was a Chinese American,
you would like to see what it is. You know, me being 80
so he was the first Asian American ever to sit in the
years old I have to start giving away all my files, because
Congress, and Patsy Takamoto was the first female
my time on this earth is limited. All of us have a limited
Asian to sit in the Congress of the United States. And so
time, yes.
we were also proud of her.
Well, I tell you one thing that happened 60 years ago.
Professor Hoshino: I remember when I was in the
When I was in the Army of the United States, I was not
university of Hawaii, at that time the governor was
sent overseas. I stayed; I spent the war in California,
George Ariyoshi, he is a Japanese American and
because you remember World War II was a terrible,
governor of the state of Hawaii.
terrible battle. So God looked on me and said you stay in
Professor Conant: Let me tell you this. In our law school
California. But we had about a million men just assigned
class we had another student from Hawaii, a fellow
to coast defenses on the worry that some submarine may
named Edward Nakamura, and Ed Nakamura was a
land suicide troops.
disabled veteran from what was called the 442nd
Professor Hoshino: Oh yes I understand, I think so.
regiment, the all volunteer Japanese-American regiment
Professor Conant: But there were no landings on the
fighting in France and Germany, and they fought so hard
Pacific coasts. There were two small landings on the
and they won so many medals that the 442nd regiment
Atlantic cost of Germans, and they were very quickly
came down in history as the most decorated with medals
captured. And they immediately said we are prisoners of
of any regiment in the history of the United States Army.
war, we intend to sit around till the end of the war. And
Professor Hoshino: Very great.
President Roosevelt said no. If you land in civilian
Professor Conant: Yes, so Ed was one of the decorated
clothes with arms you are terrorists. And President
and disabled members of the 442nd. All right, when he
Roosevelt appointed a military commission to try them
went back to Hawaii he joined a law firm working on
as terrorists. And they were tried as terrorists and
labor relations, he was a labor lawyer, for 25 years and
executed.
after 25 years he got a telephone call from Governor
Professor Hoshino: Oh yes, some Nazis.
Ariyoshi. And Ariyoshi said, would you like to serve on
Professor Conant: But the fairness of our legal system
the Supreme Court of Hawaii, he was 55 I think at that
allowed them to take their claim to be prisoners of war
time, he said yes thank you I will take that appointment.
all the way to the Supreme Court of the United States. So
After working all his life so hard as a practicing lawyer,
they had the full use of our legal system to try to make
sometimes you work 7 days a week as practicing lawyer
that claim. They lost it, but at least our legal system
of preparing. And so sitting on the Supreme Court of
showed you can even be a terrorist and have, lawyers
Hawaii was less tiring job because they don’t have a
will be appointed to you, because they had no money with
heavy docket. A docket is the list of cases coming up
them. So the court appointed lawyers for them and they
during the year, we call it the docket. They don’t have a
took this up to the Supreme Court.
very big docket which means they don’t work very hard.
Professor Hoshino: That is similar with even the
So Edd had, that appointment was a 10 years
Japanese system. OK then, I would like you to talk about
appointment, so he was on there for 10 year and then he
your two published books. Did you publish these two
retired, and then couple of years ago he died
books after retirement?
unfortunately. So, what a wonderful fellow. So we had
Professor Conant: Yes.
two fine people from Hawaii, both Japanese Americans in
Professor Hoshino: Especially the latest one.
the class of 51.
Professor Conant: This one.
Professor Hoshino: You know, I visited for a short time
Professor Hoshino: …”Railroad Bankruptcies and
L.A., there is a Japanese American museum at the center
Mergers from Chicago West 1975-2001: Financial
of Los Angeles, Little Tokyo I think. Their picture is
Analysis and Regulatory Critique” from. Elsevier 2004.
there I think.
Professor Conant: That was published just as I retired
Professor Conant: I don’t know. Well I can, I have some
1991.
−247−
インタビュー
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
Professor Hoshino: The Constitution and the Economy, a
Professor Conant: Well I have a contract that provides
different one. “Constitutional Structure and Purposes,
for little royalties. But it doesn’t say how many they’re
Critical Commentary”.
going to publish. The contract does not indicate how
Professor Conant: This is more general jurisprudence.
many they are going to publish.
This is the narrow part of the Constitution.
Professor Hoshino: So you receive a royalty if they
Professor Hoshino: Which year is this?
publish more.
Professor Conant: 2001.
Professor Conant: I receive a royalty for every one they
Professor Hoshino: Three books, very good.
sell, not every one they publish. Every one they sell.
And especially the latest one, you are dealing with the
Professor Hoshino: That’s right. Even me I receive some
case of bankruptcy and mergers, which is very
royalties for one book. I published a book called “the
interesting for me.
Anatomy of Japanese Business” with Kazuo Sato. He
Professor Conant: Let me see if can find a copy of
actually died last year. I had an interview with him last
summary. Here is a copy you can take home. You have to
January. And still some times I receive small amount of
enlarge it in your computer.
royalty, after 20 years, since 1984. And this university
Professor Hoshino: So summary is ok. Then can you
has that book, in the library, I checked before coming
explain how to publish a book in English.
here. They have it which is good.
Professor Conant: Yes, but you see this is a very narrow
So this University also includes this book in the library.
topic, ……and I had to find a publisher that was
Professor Conant: Oh yes, it’s here in the library.
interested in transportation and I found Elsevier,
Professor Hoshino: Did they buy it automatically or did
although its offices are in England and in Holland. They
you donate it?
were publishing a series of books on transport in the
Professor Conant: No I didn’t donate it. I told them my
United States, and so I wrote to them, and said I have a
book is published and I’m sure you want to buy it,
manuscript on transport, economics and law, in this
And the librarian said yes.
area. And I actually, their editor for economics is in
Professor Hoshino: That’s nice, I think so.
Oxford. So I wrote to this fellow in Oxford and he said
Professor Conant: We do want to buy it, so that’s what
send me the manuscript. So I sent him the manuscript
happened.
and he said well , since most of our studies in transport
Professor Hoshino: So those books are in the library.
are American, we’ve appointed an editor in the US to
Professor Conant: Oh yes, well this one is in the law
decide whether your book should be published. So he
library.
mailed the manuscript to the professor of transportation
Professor Hoshino: Oh in the law library.
and economics in the University of Maryland. And the
Professor Conant: This one I think is in both business
fellow at the Maryland read the manuscript, and he said
and law, it is in both libraries.
if you just put a short conclusion at the end of each
Professor Hoshino: Because of law and economics, of
chapter, to give emphasis to the reader who is new to the
course. You published more before 1991.
topic, and may have missed your key points. If you just
Professor Conant: I don’t know whether I have it here.
write a page and a half of conclusion for each of the
No I have copies at home.
chapters, I’ll recommend publication.
Professor Hoshino: I understand that in American
Professor Hoshino: Good.
business schools usually they emphasize very much on
Professor Conant: So he recommended publication, here
publishing academic papers in academic journals rather
it is. So I was just lucky that I found a publisher who was
than publishing books.
doing transport economics.
Professor Conant: What can I say, there are universities
Professor Hoshino: And how many copies usually for a
that emphasizes research more than teaching either, like
publication.
this one, I have to tell you about the appointment system.
Professor Conant: I don’t know.
When you are a young PhD just finished and whereever
Professor Hoshino: Ah you don’t know. No agreement or
you where educated you have very good recommendation
contract with the publisher.
letters from the professors, they say you’ve got brain
−248−
Interview with Special Editor of JJAS, Professor Emeritos Michael Conant
power. then you come and you are appointed assistant
and published in 1960. So in 1960 when I came up before
professor, all right, while you are an assistant professor
the president’s office on the question of tenure, my book
you have six years before you come up for review. At the
was coming out. So that book plus number of articles on
end of six years you’re either promoted and given tenure
number of topics I got my tenure. So that’s why I am
…..for life, or you’re released. All right so during that
here for life.
first 6 years the young assistant professor has to work
Professor Hoshino: So to get tenure, assistant professor
like mad on publications, because when you come up for
has to publish papers, are books compulsory?
review at the end of six years and you’re department
Professor Conant: It can be papers or books or both. The
says you are one of the really great teachers, the
question is what they do for promotion; they ask the
president’s office says so what we don’t look at that,
department first, like the School of Business, do you
tenure in a research university is based on research, so
want the person promoted, and then the department sets
that means you really got to work hard 7 days a week
this up and have two or three of the faculty review the
while you are an assistant professor and get things done.
material then they call a meeting of all the tenure
So I published a book, I published some transport articles
members, associates and full professors and they say this
while I was an assistant professor but my main research
is what we prepared to send up to the president’s office,
is about antitrust and the motion picture industry. And
but we want to vote on it and all full professors, associate
antitrust you know is antimonopoly laws, and so when I
professors are notified two weeks ahead, all the
finished law school I was in a law firm in Chicago for
materials of this candidate will be in such and such a
about three years, and our biggest client in the law firm
room, go in and inspect the materials read what ever you
was a chain of motion picture theaters. And we were in
want to read because we’re going to have a vote on
litigation with the production companies, because our
whether to recommend him for tenure.
big client had a lot of theaters but only one in downtown
And then they have the vote. And it doesn’t have to be
Chicago. The main big motion picture theaters in
anonymous because there maybe some people that just
downtown Chicago were controlled in Hollywood by the
took a personal dislike to him.
Paramount Picture Corporation. And there was a big
Professor Hoshino: The majority rule or two third?
Antitrust suit by the government the 1940s that forced
Professor Conant: Well no it just has to be substantial so
the big production companies to sell all their theaters,
there is no, two thirds is a good estimate, but it better be
they set up separate companies and distribute the stock,
more than two thirds, it better be more than two thirds.
get rid of it. and so because the criminal prosecution by
So then it goes up, then the chancellor’s office for the
the antitrust division of the department of Justice in
campus sends all the research materials and letters to
1940s established monopoly practices as proved then the
the academic senate that represents the whole faculty
small companies started suing what we call the section 7
and the academic senate, they appoint a committee of
in the Sherman Act, smaller firms were injured by
five to review what the department is recommending.
monopolist, treble damages, so the section 7 of the
And of the committee of five, two are from the
Sherman Antitrust Act is concerned with firms that
department and three from outside.
were injured and then lost money because of the position
Professor Hoshino: Ah three.
of the monopolists. So we had in our firm in Chicago
Professor Conant: Three that are not in the School of
representing this chain of smaller theaters, we had a
Business. So like in my case, I don’t know who was
litigation going on against the bigger companies growing
appointed, it is a secret but it would be at least one or
out of what happened in the 1940s, and so I sort of
two from the Economics Department and one from the
became, developed an enormous expertise in motion
Law School. And so they review this and they write a
pictures antitrust problems, and so I decided my key
report to the chancellor. So the chancellor reviews that
thing when I was an assistant professor is to write a
and if it’s a split committee it’s difficult. In other words,
really substantial book in antitrust and motion pictures
if you have three in favor and two against, it’s border
industry. And that came in 1944 it was accepted for
line. So it’s difficult. But if you have four out of five it’s
publication by the University of California press in 1959,
pretty much sure the chancellor will sign the
−249−
インタビュー
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
recommendation letter to the president’s office, for
graduate students in the university of Chicago, get
promoting the assistant to tenure.…..
scholarships, because they don’t have money to pay the
Professor Hoshino: So you have been publishing more
tuition over 15,000 dollars a year. But my wife, she gives
books rather than articles. I think.
her money to two main charities. One is called “the
Professor Conant: Well I published about 40 articles.
Nature Conservancy,” which buys up forest land and
Professor Hoshino: 40 articles. And how many books.
gives it to the states or the nations or governments. In
Professor Conant: Well, six I think.
other words to make sure that forest land remains forest
Professor Hoshino: So more articles than books as the
land and not cut down for farms.
number is concerned. Still your answer is books. I think
Professor Hoshino: Buying from private owners?
that for many Japanese scholars they prefer books, in the
Professor Conant: Private owners sure, there is coastal
business area, but I thought American scholars
land all along the Pacific Coast where some areas are
emphasize on papers more than on books.
owned by private owners. And then there are all the
Professor Conant: In the hard sciences chemistry,
mountain areas of California, I mean the majority is
physics and biology it’s almost all of it is papers.
owned by the state but there are other parts that they
Professor Hoshino: Yes finance too.
are not, they are privately owned. So she gives half of her
Professor Conant: Or in the humanities, the professors
money. She gives 12,000 dollars a year to the Nature
of English literature may write books about some theme
Conservancy. And then she gave the other 12,000 that
found in the literature, that is found in a enormous
she gave, to an American branch of a British charity. But
number of writings why the theme is developed in the
in order to take the deduction in the income tax, you see
literature, some thing like that. So it’s to integrate ideas.
we are all concerned here. The charity deduction is one
Professor Hoshino: Could you explain about the
that you deduct from your gross income to calculate the
American taxation system. Because you file this
net income that is taxable. The other one is called
document every year.
“Oxfam America”, is an Oxford England charity
Professor Conant: Yes, well it is so complex we make an
concerned with famine in Africa. So they are called
enormous gift to charity every year.
Oxfam England. But our charitable gifts must be given to
Professor Hoshino: Yourself.
an American charity. So the Oxfam people got wealthy
Professor Conant: More than 20,000 dollars a year to
Americans to organize an American charity, Oxfam
charity.
America, and file the name with the Internal Revenue
Professor Hoshino: You donate 20,000 dollars. A big
Service, so we can deduct from our income tax for gifts
amount of money.
to Oxfam America.
Professor Conant: Yes, that’s a big amount of money. But
So that’s where are our three gifts go.
you see my wife and I have no children.
Professor Hoshino: But you said 20,000.
Professor Hoshino: No children.
Professor Conant: Well, as really as, this year I gave 34.
Professor Conant: Zero children, so you know, people
Because I gave 10 and my wife 12 to each of the two, so
with no children have to think and I have nieces and
this year 34,000. So we are trying to do the right thing.
nephews but they all have university educations, they
But in my will I have left the bulk of my estate, to the
have good jobs, and so I don’t want to give them much
University of Chicago. I mean I left a little bit to my niece
money, they will quit their jobs and become lazy. I don’t
and nephews, but mostly to the University of Chicago.
want them to become lazy. So I give ten thousand dollars
Professor Hoshino: So if you donate charity, there are
a year to the University of Chicago, it’s one of my
some advantages of tax deductions.
charities. Because when I was a graduate student for 6
Professor Conant: Well among the deductions. Let’s see
years I had 6 years of scholarships, no tuition and so I
if we have the whole forms in there,
had a great, great education with no tuition in graduate
Professor Hoshino: I personally need to file the tax form,
school and in law school. And so I feel an obligation,
after going back to Japan because March 15th is the dead
since I have substantial income, to help, because their
line. I do it my self without any help of a tax lawyer
tuition is so high, I am concerned with helping some
Professor Conant: Let’s see it’s here. Let me put on my
−250−
Interview with Special Editor of JJAS, Professor Emeritos Michael Conant
glasses. Let’s see, see 31, I guess it says see page 31. It
Professor Conant: Sure, sure.
doesn’t work out. Here, itemize deductions or standard.
Professor Hoshino: But generally speaking, American
Standard is for the lower income people. They elect the
people are more willing to pay charity or donation. I
standard because they don’t have enough. All right, so
think, rather than Japanese. That’s a big advantage I
this is a standard deduction sheet, how you work it out. I
think.
don’t know why I can’t find.
Professor Conant: Well maybe you know, large numbers
Professor Hoshino: And you ask a tax expert every time.
of Americans go to church, and the church talks to them.
Professor Conant: Yes.
I wouldn’t go to the church under any conditions, but, my
Professor Hoshino: That’s average Americans asking
ancestry is not Christian, my ancestry is Jewish. So I am
those file to expert.
not a Christian.
Professor Conant: But anyway, they have deduction for
Professor Hoshino: But you still donate.
medical expenses but the medical expenses has to be
Professor Conant: Well yes, exactly. You know half of the
more that 2% of your general gross income, so there is, if
Christian religion is the Old Testament which is the
you don’t have that amount, then there is real estate
Jewish Testament. I mean our Old Testament is half of
taxes, and personal taxes, and then there are charity
what the Christians believe.
deductions. And so there is charities across the country,
Professor Hoshino: Well. Thank you for much for your
all registered with the Internal Revenue Service.
interesting and stimulating talks, today.
Because they have to file reports every year to the
Internal Revenue Service, on how much money they get,
and spend on administration and how much is actually
spent on charitable activity. The Internal Revenue
Service ones know if they are mostly doing charity work,
or mostly hiring executives to administer. You know it
might be not much of a charity. So they demand annual
reports from all of these hundreds and hundreds of
charities maybe thousands.
Because this also applies, you see all of the churches are
also registered with the Internal Revenue Service as
charities. So you can imagine what is involved in that.
Professor Hoshino: But if you give some amount of
charity to an organization or church, so you pay this tax
income?
Professor Conant: Yes, the deductions, you see the
deductions on the form are added up, and that total
amount is subtracted from your gross income to get you
down to a net taxable income.
Professor Hoshino: So it’s up to each personal income. If
I donate, let’s say 10,000 dollars per year and tax does not
deduct the 10,000, maybe only 10% or so, tax deduction
for me. Once I calculated, only 10% of deduction on tax.
So not a big advantage of donated money for me. Then
many Japanese don’t donate. If big incentive such as
100% exists, everybody donate a lots of money. They
don’t like having tax rather than paying charity.
In the States, I’m not sure. It depends upon the income
of each person.
−251−
インタビュー
経営行動科学第18巻第 3 号
Michael Conant
Address: Haas School of Business
University of California
Berkeley, CA 94720-1900
(510) 643-6623
Fax: (510) 642-4700
Education:
Ph. D. in Economics, University of Chicago 1949
Dissertation: Monopoly and Price Policies in the Farm
Machinery industry
J. D., University of Chicago Law School, 1951
Experience:
Practice of Law, specializing in business organization,
securities regulation and antitrust law, Chicago,
illinois, 1951-1954
Professor, Haas School of Business, University of
California at Barkeley, starting September 1954;
Professor Emeritus 1991
Visiting Professor of Law, University of Singapore, 19641965
Books:
Antitrust in the Motion Picture Industry (University of
California Press, 1960)
Railroad Mergers and Adandonments (University of
California Press, 1964)
The Constitution and Capitalism (West Publishing
Company, 1974)
The Constitution and the Economy: Objective Theory
and Critical Commentary (University of Oklahoma
Press, 1991)
Constitutional Structure and Purposes: Critical
Commentary (Greenwood Publishing, 2001)
Railroad Bankruptcies and Mergers from Chicago West
1975-2001: Financial Analysis and Regulatory
Critique (Elsevier, 2004)
Articles:
Journal of Business, Minnesota Law Review, Land
Economics, Antitrust Policies, Cornell Law Quarterly,
University of Pennsylvania Law Review, Michigan Law
Review, Stanford Law Review, Transportation Journal,
Minnesota Law Review, Indiana Law Review, California
Management Review, Industrial Organization Review,
Anglo-American Law Review. Cornell Journal of Law
and Public Policies, etc.
−252−
編集後記
本学会は日本経済学会連合へ第60番目の学会として2004年度より参加している。この日
本経済学会連合は，その規約の第3条で経済学，商学，経営学に関する専門部会（学会）
があり，実質的に全国的に組織され，研究者が主たる組織で，定期的に学術研究大会を開
き，定期的に役員の改選が行われ，定期刊行物またはそれに準じるものを発行している学
会で構成されている。本年5月に評議員会が開催され理事10人が選出された。各学会選出
の2名の評議員の合計120人の評議員と10人の理事は別表のようである。60学会のうちの27
の経営学関連学会のうち年に4回学会誌を発行している学会に経営史学会（会員891名）が
ある。この経営史学会では，直近の1年間で第39巻第1号を平成16年6月24日発行に，第2号
を9月に，第3号を12月に，第4号を17年3月に発行している。ただし，その内容は査読のあ
る論文が，各号で2−3編でしかなく，書評が7−8編と数多くなっている。また，この学会
では，日本学術振興会の平成16年度科学研究費補助金の研究成果公開促進費を受領し学会
誌を，東京大学出版会のUPS政策センターより出版している。経営行動科学学会（会員
560名）も学会の希望としては年4回発行したいのであるが，査読制度を採用しているので
実現はなかなか難しい。特に年次大会論文集は機関誌と違い査読はないのであるが，年次
大会の主催校より発行されているからこれを加えて年4回発行ということになるかもしれ
ない。しかし，査読付でない原稿としての招待講演，資料，書評等の増加により年4回の
機関誌の発行は可能かもしれない。是非，積極的な推薦，投稿をお願いしたい。
編集委員長 星野靖雄
本誌「経営行動科学」は国立情報学研究所のNACSIS-ELSの以下のHPでVol.1 No.1より、
半年前までの最新刊までのバックナンバーが見られることになった。なお、最新刊の3冊
も以下の学会のHPで見られる。
NACSIS-ELS : https://els.nii.ac.jp/nacsis-els-j.php3?top
経営行動科学 : http://wwwsoc.nii.ac.jp/jaas2/
−253−
日本経済学会連合
評議員・理事名簿
1
日本金融学会
（1,068名）
晝間 文彦
金子 邦彦
2
経済学史学会
（788名）
只腰 親和
的場 昭弘
3
公益事業学会
（522名）
石井 晴夫
植村 利男
4
社会経済史学会
（1,413名）
梅津 順一
古田 和子
5
政治経済学・経済史学会
（960名）
柳沢
悠
小岩 信竹
6
日本会計研究学会
（1,719名）
○西澤
脩■
新田 忠誓
7
日本経営学会
（2,158名）
○貫
8
日本経済政策学会
（1,296名）
川野辺裕幸
田村 正勝
9
日本交通学会
（490名）
今橋
隆
竹内 健蔵
10
日本財政学会
（867名）
今井 勝人
持田 信樹
11
日本統計学会
（1,550名）
稲葉 敏夫
西郷
浩
12
日本経済学会
（3,134名）
○井堀 利宏■
太田
誠
13
日本農業経済学会
（1,494名）
岩本 純明
鈴木 幹俊
14
日本国際経済学会
（1,316名）
和気 洋子
鈴木 利大
15
日本商品学会
（254名）
石崎 悦史
宝多 國弘
16
社会政策学会
（1,082名）
森
菅沼
17
日本保険学会
（1,148名）
大城 裕二
18
日本商業学会
（1,017名）
19
経済地理学会
（863名）
20
アジア政経学会
21
経済理論学会
（972名）
22
国際ビジネスコミュニケーション学会
（209名）
足立 行子
太田 正孝
23
日本経営数学会
（132名）
田中 伸英
臼井
24
経営史学会
（891名）
小川
功
中村 青志
25
日本貿易学会
（492名）
山田 晃久
飯沼 博一
26
日本地域学会
（913名）
鐘ヶ江秀彦
渋澤 博幸
27
証券経済学会
（622名）
齋藤 壽彦
坂本 恒夫
28
日本人口学会
（590名）
森岡
小川 直宏
29
比較経済体制学会
（274名）
酒井正三郎
30
組織学会
31
日本労務学会
32
33
34
日本計画行政学会
（1,224名）
35
日本監査研究学会
（443名）
八田 進二
橋本
尚
36
日本消費経済学会
（430名）
石橋 春男
十合
晄
37
国際会計研究学会
（573名）
鎌田 信夫
竹村 憲郎
38
実践経営学会
（560名）
深澤 郁喜
平野 文彦
39
日本地方自治研究学会
（302名）
隅田 一豊
池宮城秀正
40
日本港湾経済学会
（275名）
山上
石川 稔矩
（1,340名）
（1,835名）
小原
隆夫■
建資
平沼
高
隆
真屋 尚生
博
向山 雅夫
青野 壽彦
末吉 健治
佐藤 幸人
木曽 順子
○鶴田 満彦■
長島 誠一
仁
栖原
功
学
○岡本 康雄■
稲葉 元吉
（830名）
二神 恭一
菊野 一雄
経済社会学会
（371名）
佐々木實雄
安田
日本経済財務研究学会
（503名）
亀川 雅人
三浦 后美
−254−
樹下
明
徹
雪
根本 敏則
41
日本経営教育学会
（862名）
○小椋 康宏■
○飫冨 順久■
42
経営哲学学会
（322名）
厚東 偉介
大平 浩二
43
日本リスクマネジメント学会
（440名）
亀井 利明
上田 和勇
44
日本物流学会
（431名）
○宇野 政雄■
宮下 正房
45
比較経営学会
（209名）
井上 照幸
加藤志津子
46
経営行動研究学会
（495名）
○菊池 敏夫■
岩井 清治
47
産業学会
（350名）
大西 勝明
小林 清人
48
日本経営システム学会
（495名）
小田部 明
能勢 豊一
49
国際公共経済学会
（294名）
和田 尚久
植野 一芳
50
会計理論学会
（198名）
小栗 崇資
藤田 昌也
51
日本海運経済学会
（312名）
山岸
寛
高田 富夫
52
日本管理会計学会
（806名）
田中 隆雄
山田 庫平
53
経営学史学会
（335名）
高橋 由明
小笠原英司
54
アジア経営学会
（426名）
野口
小阪 隆秀
55
国際ビジネス研究学会
（673名）
○江夏 健一■
桑名 義晴
56
日本広告学会
（676名）
亀井 昭宏
植條 則夫
57
日本経営論理学会
（412名）
小林 俊治
手島 祥行
58
進化経済学会
（529名）
有賀 裕二
西山 賢一
59
労務理論学会
（278名）
永山 利和
安井 恒則
60
経営行動科学学会
（560名）
城戸 康彰
星野 靖雄
祐
１ ○印は理事
２ カッコ内の会員数は2005年3月末 日本経済学会連合ニュース No.41 2005より
３ 評議員は2005年4月20日付の配布資料より
−255−
Japanese Journal of Administrative Science
Instruction for Authors
This journal covers articles, research notes, review articles, material, investigation reports, case
studies, book review of areas such as management, organization, human resources management,
marketing etc.
1. Manuscripts should not been previously published in whole or in part.
2. Send three copies of the manuscript or submit on line in MS WORD or PDF file to the editor-inchief.
3. Author(s) information include the following information on the first page of the manuscript: title,
name(s) of author(s), institutional affiliation, address, telephone and fax number, e-mail address.
On the next page of the manuscript include the title and abstract.
4. Abstract should be between 100 and 175 words.
5. References: List references alphabetically by the author’s last name at the end of paper and style
of references are as follows.
House, R. 1971 A path-goal theory of leader effectiveness. Administrative Science Quarter, 2, 321329.
Taylor, P.N. 1984 Behavioral decision making, Glenview, ill: Scott, Foresman and Co.
6. References can be cited as, e.g. Anderson (1968) describes.........., Anderson (1967a), Anderson
(1967b).
7. Tables: Type tables on separate pages after the text of the paper. When referring to a specific
table in the text of the paper, use Table 1, etc.
8. Figures: Provide figures in camera-ready form of a professional quality. When referring to a
specific figure, use Figure 1, etc.
9. Copyright of published papers belongs to the Japanese Association of Administrative Science.
−256−
Editor-in-Chief
Yasuo Hoshino, University of Tsukuba
Managing Editors
Kiyoshi Takahashi, Kobe University
Naoto Watanabe, Keio University
Associate Editors
Tetsushi Fujimoto, Nanzan University
Tadashi Ide, Osaka Prefectural University
Akira Ishikawa, Aoyama Gakuin University
Takashi Kakuyama, Tokyo International University
Atsuko Kanai, Nagoya University
Tadahiko Kawai, University of Tsukuba
Yutaka Kobayashi, Tohoku Gakuin University
Toshihiro Matsubara, Aichi Gakuin University
Hisako Munekata, Kinjo Gakuin University
Nobuaki Namiki, Rikkyo University
Hiroyuki Noguchi, Nagoya University
Makoto Otsu, Chubu University
Kiriko Sakata, Hiroshima University
Ken Sakuma, Chuo University
Jiro Takai, Nagoya University
Norihiko Takeuchi, Aichi Gakuin University
Kenichiro Tanaka, Nihon University
Yutaka Toshima, Nihon University
Stephen Turnbull, University of Tsukuba
Hiroshi Yamamoto, Aoyama Gakuin University
Masaru Yamashita, Aoyama Gakuin University
Special Associate Editors
Michael Conant, University of California, Berkeley
Gary Dymski, University of California Center, Sacramento
Miriam Erez, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology
Sanford M. Jacoby, UCLA
Mariko Sakakibara, UCLA
Shoji Shiba, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Hirokazu Takada, City University of New York
Yoshihiro Tsurumi, City University of New York
Chikako Usui, University of Missouri at St. Louis
Itzhak Wirth, St. Johns University
Manuscripts : Send three copies or on line in MS Word or PDF to Professor Yasuo Hoshino, Editor-in-Chief,
Japanese Journal of Administrative Science, Graduate School of Systems and Information
Engineering, The University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573 Japan
Manuscripts : Phone & Fax : 81-29-853-5188
Manuscripts : E-mail : [email protected]
THE JAPANESE ASSOCIATION OF ADMINISTRATIVE SCIENCE
School of Management, Tokyo University of Science
500 Shimo-kiyohisa, Kuki, Saitama, Japan 346-8512
Phone : +81-480-21-7641; Fax: +81-480-21-7654
E-mail : [email protected]
Home Page : http://wwwsoc.nii.ac.jp/jaas2/index.html
−257−
編集委員長
星 野 靖 雄（筑 波 大 学）
常任編集委員
高 橋
潔（神 戸 大 学）
渡 辺 直 登（慶應義塾大学）
編 集 委 員
藤 本 哲 史（南 山 大 学）
松 原 敏 浩（愛知学院大学）
高 井 次 郎（名 古 屋 大 学）
井 手
亘（大阪府立大学）
宗 方 比佐子（金城学院大学）
竹 内 規 彦（東京理科大学）
石 川
昭（青山学院大学）
並 木 伸 晃（立 教 大 学）
田 中 堅一郎（日 本 大 学）
角 山
剛（東京国際大学）
野 口 裕 之（名 古 屋 大 学）
外 島
金 井 篤 子（名 古 屋 大 学）
大 津
Stephen Turnbull（筑 波 大 学）
河 合 忠 彦（筑 波 大 学）
坂 田 桐 子（広 島 大 学）
山 本
寛（青山学院大学）
小 林
佐久間
山 下
勝（青山学院大学）
裕（東北学院大学）
誠（中 部 大 学）
賢（中 央 大 学）
裕（日 本 大 学）
特別編集委員
Michael Conant（カリフォルニア大学・バークレー）
司 馬 正 次（マサチューセッツ工科大学）
Gary Dymski
（カリフォルニア大学・サクラメントセンター）
高 田 博 和（ニューヨーク市立大学）
Miriam Erez
（テクニオン−イスラエル工科大学）
霍 見 芳 浩（ニューヨーク市立大学）
Sanford M. Jacoby（カリフォルニア大学・ロサンゼルス）
臼 井 智観子（ミズーリ州立大学）
榊 原 磨理子（カリフォルニア大学・ロサンゼルス）
Itzhak Wirth
（聖ヨハネ大学）
【原稿送付先】〒305-8573 茨城県つくば市天王台1−1−1
筑波大学大学院システム情報工学研究科 経営行動科学編集委員長 星野靖雄
電話・FAX：029-853-5188（研究室直通）
電子メール：[email protected]
【学会事務局】〒346-8512 埼玉県久喜市下清久500
東京理科大学 経営学部 竹内規彦研究室内
TEL：0480-21-7641，FAX：0480-21-7654
E-mail：[email protected]
http://wwwsoc.nii.ac.jp/jaas2/index.html
経営行動科学 第18巻第 3 号
平成17年 7 月31日発行
編
集
「経営行動科学」編集委員会
委員長
星
野
靖
雄
発
行
経 営 行 動 科 学 学 会
会 長
城
戸
康
彰
印
刷
ブ ラ ザ ー 印 刷 株 式 会 社
〒444-0840 岡崎市戸崎町原山54−3
電話：0564-51-0651，FAX：0564-54-2405
THE JAPANESE JOURNAL
OF
ADMINISTRATIVE SCIENCE
Vol. 18, No. 3
July, 2005
INVITED ARTICLES
Dysfunctional Corporations and Flawed Business Education in America ………………………………… 179
Yoshi TSURUMI
Managing as Creating …………………………………………………………………………………………… 193
Laurent LAPIERRE
ARTICLES
Analysis of Dynamic Diffusion Processes of the 2G Cellular Phones and the Access to Internet………… 199
Hirokazu TAKADA
Kaichi SAITO
Takaho UEDA
Fiona SUSSAN
Yu-Min CHEN
Growth and Ownership: Evidence from Foreign Manufacturing Affiliates in Japan ……………………… 211
Lailani L. ALCANTARA
Yasuo HOSHINO
External and Internal Collaboration as the Sources of R&D Performance:
An Empirical Investigation of R&D Researchers in the Pharmaceutical Firms ………………………… 223
Kazuhiro ASAKAWA
Hiroshi NAKAMURA
RESEARCH NOTE
Stewardship Theory: A Management Theory based on a Self-actualizing Man
― Description of the Theory, Literature Reviews, and Implications on Future Research ― ……… 235
Hitoshi KASHIWAGI
INTERVIEW
Special Editor of JJAS, Professor Emeritus Michael Conant, U. C. Berkeley ……………………………… 245
EDITOR’S NOTE ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 253

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